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2024-03-07 21:13:16

SPARTA Direct Simulation Monte Carlo Simulator

SPARTA Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) Simulator

The generation of random numbers is too important to be left to

chance. -- Robert Coveyou

God does not play dice. -- Albert Einstein

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SPARTA is an acronym for Stochastic PArallel Rarefied-gas

Time-accurate Analyzer.

SPARTA is a parallel DSMC or Direct Simulation Monte Carlo code for

performing simulations of low-density gases in 2d or 3d. Particles

advect through a hierarchical Cartesian grid that overlays the

simulation box. The grid is used to group particles by grid cell for

purposes of performing collisions and chemistry. Physical objects

with triangulated surfaces can be embedded in the grid, creating cut

and split grid cells. The grid is also used to efficiently find

particle/surface collisions.

SPARTA runs on single processors or in parallel using message-passing

techniques and a spatial-decomposition of the simulation domain. The

code is designed to be easy to modify or extend with new

functionality.

SPARTA is distributed as an open source code under

the terms of the GPL, or sometimes (by request) under the terms

of the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL). The current

version can be downloaded here.

SPARTA was primarily developed at Sandia National Laboratories,

a US Department of Energy (DOE) laboratory. The authors and

funding are listed on this page.

Recent SPARTA News

(4/23) Release of version 13 Apr 2023. It

includes support for Python 3, a new fix

surf/temp command, support for custom

per-grid-cell attributes, an optimized particle move algorithm when a

model has a regular grid and no surface elements, a new option for the

create_particles command to add particles in grid cells cut by surface

elements. See more details here.

(7/22) Release of version 18 July 2022.

It includes new options for the compute surf

command, a new no-slip option for specular

surface collisiont, and a new surface collision adiabatic

model with isotropic scattering. See more

details here.

(2/22) Options to add various kinds of

external fields to influence particle advection. They can be

spatially or time varying and applied on a per-particle or

per-grid-cell basis. See the doc page for the global

field command.

(10/21) Added a surf_react adsorb command

which has support for on-surface chemistry reactions and storage of

surface state, i.e. per-surface-element concentrations of various

on-surface species. This enables modeling of both gas/surface and

surface/surface chemical reaction networks.

(11/20) Removed hierarchical grid parent

cells from the internally stored data structures. The code now only

stores child cells. For large problems with many levels of grid

adaptation, this frees up a large amount of memory.

(1/20) Added support for transparent

surfaces which tally statistics when

particles pass throught them.

(10/19) Added these commands for

ablation modeling of implicit

surface elements: fix ablate, compute

isurf/grid, compute

react/isurf/grid,

write_isurf.

(4/19) Added support for implicit 2d and

3d surface elements defined by a grid corner point values in a read-in

file. These are in contrast to explicit surface elements defined by

line segments (2d) or triangles (3d).

(2/19) Added support for distributed

surface elements so that complex surfaces with huge element counts

can be modeled, with the elements stored acrossed processors.

(8/18) SPARTA development is now

supported on GitHub and with a

mail list.

(1/18) Added new sections to the

Benchmark page with performance results using the new Kokkos

accelerator options on a variety of new machines and hardware,

including multi-core CPUs (via threading), GPUs, and KNLs.

(12/17) Added a KOKKOS package to the

code to allow building with the open-source Kokkos library which

provides support for running SPARTA on different architectures,

including multi-core CPUs (via threading), GPUs, and KNLs. See this

section of the manual for details.

(4/17) Added a subsonic pressure boundary

condition via a surf_collide piston command,

as well as a 2d/3d FFT capability for grid based quantities on regular

grids via the compute fft/grid

command.

(8/16) Added fix

ave/histo and fix

ave/histo/weight commands to enable

histogramming of various quantities during a simulation.

(1/16) Added grid-style

variables so that user-defined per-grid quantities

can be calculated on-the-fly and output more easily.

(10/15) Added a near-neighbor collision

model for selecting pairs of collision

partners.

(9/15) Posted slides for a half-day

tutorial short-course on SPARTA, taught at the biennial DSMC15

conference. See the Tutorials link above.

(8/15) Added static and on-the-fly grid

adaptivity via the adapt_grid and fix

adapt commands. Also added commands to

move or remove surface

elements.

(5/15) Added a fix

emit/surf command to enable particle outflux

from surface elements, including their use as a global influx

boundary.

(5/15) Surface reaction models have been

added via the surf_react command. The full set

of dissociation, ionization, exchange, and recombination reactions,

for both gas-phase and surface chemitstry are now implemented.

(5/15) Added an ambipolar approximation

for modeling charged plasmas. See this howto

discussion for an explanation of

using the various new commands and command options that enable the

approximation.

(2/15) Added a fix

emit/face/file command to enable

spatially-varying particle influx through a simulation box face, as

defined by a file of mesh points and values.

(12/14) Added two new reaction styles to

the react command, for the Quantum-Kinetic (QK) model

and a hybrid Total Collision Energy / Quantum Kinetic (TCE/QK)

model.

(10/14) Added two Python

scripts which can convert SPARTA

output files to ParaView format for interactive 3d viz.

Paraview is a popular freely-available

visualization tool.

(8/14) Added a stl2surf.py

tool to convert STL-format

triangulation files into the SPARTA surface file

format.

(8/14) Enabled axi-symmetric 2d models.

See Section 4.2 of the manual for

details.

(7/14) Initial open-source release of

SPARTA.

SPARTA Highlight

(see the Pictures & Movies page for more examples of

SPARTA calculations)

This is work by Michael Gallis (magalli at sandia.gov) at Sandia.

This calculation was done to model Richtmyer/Meshkov mixing which

occurs when a light gas is on top of a heavier gas and a shock induces

mixing and turbulent effects.

This is a large 2d calculation of He (green) on top of Ar (red). 4.5B

particles were run with 400M grid cells for 240K timesteps. The

simulation was run on 32K nodes (16 cores per node, 512K MPI tasks) of

the Sequoia BG/Q machine at Lawrence Livermore National Labs (LLNL).

Snapshot images of the simulation were created using SPARTA's dump

image command, rather than saving particle data

to disk. The first 2 images are the initial and final state of the

simulation. The rightmost image is a movie of the simulation.

2 images and a 0.5 Mb QuickTime movie

This paper has further details about the mixing model:

Direct Simulation Monte Carlo: The Quest for Speed, M. A. Gallis,

J. R. Torczynski, S. J. Plimpton, D. J. Rader, and T. Koehler,

Proceedings of the 29th Rarefied Gas Dynamics (RGD) Symposium, Xi'an,

China, July 2014. (to be published by AIP)

(abstract)

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1历史

开关历史子章节

1.1建立城邦

1.2组建同盟

1.3波希戰爭

1.4爭霸希臘

1.5走向衰亡

2特色

开关特色子章节

2.1政治制度

2.1.1二王制

2.1.2執政官

2.1.3元老院與公民会议

2.2公民教育

2.2.1嬰兒

2.2.2男孩

2.2.3女孩

2.3社會階層

2.3.1斯巴達人

2.3.2庇里阿西人

2.3.3希洛人

2.3.4對黑劳士的奴役

2.4經濟政策

2.4.1土地國有

2.4.2鑄造鐵幣

2.4.3公食制度

2.5評價

3參見

4註釋

5參考文獻

开关參考文獻子章节

5.1引用

5.2来源

开关目录

斯巴达

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维基百科，自由的百科全书

此條目介紹的是古代希腊城邦。关于现代希腊的同名市镇，请见「斯巴达 (市镇)」。关于其他同名事物，请见「斯巴达 (消歧義)」。

坐标：37°4′55″N 22°25′25″E / 37.08194°N 22.42361°E / 37.08194; 22.42361

拉刻代蒙Λακεδαίμων公元前900年－192年

希腊文的第11个字母“Λ”（兰布达）被斯巴达军队用为城邦的象徵

斯巴达的疆域首都斯巴达常用语言多利安希臘語宗教希腊多神教政府二头政治国王 • 1104－1066年欧律斯忒涅斯• 1104－1062年普罗克勒斯• 489－480年列奥尼达一世• 192年拉克尼库斯

立法机构

五督政官

斯巴達元老院

历史时期古典时代• 成立时间（传说）公元前900年• 第二次麦西尼亚战争 685年－668年• 温泉关战役 480年• 伯罗奔尼撒战争 431年－404年• 曼丁尼亚战役 362年• 被亚该亚同盟吞并 192年

前身

继承

希腊黑暗时代

亚该亚同盟

罗马共和国

本页面有特殊字符，操作系统及浏览器須支持特殊字母与符号才能正確显示，否则可能變成乱码、问号、空格等其它符号。

斯巴达（多利安希腊文：Σπάρτα，拉丁轉寫：Spártā；阿提卡希臘文：Σπάρτη，Spártē），是古希腊的一個奴隶制城邦，本名为拉刻代蒙（Λακεδαίμων，Lakedaímōn），位於中拉科尼亚平原的南部，埃夫罗塔斯河西岸。斯巴达城為古希臘地區的战略要冲，三面环山，扼守着塔伊耶托斯山脉，該山脉上的隘口是进入拉科尼亚和伯罗奔尼撒半岛的必经之路。

斯巴达以独裁专制、军国主义和严酷的纪律而闻名，实行奴隶主阶级的贵族寡头统治，与当时雅典的民主制度形成鲜明对比，并规定所有男人必须从军，一切制度和生活都带有军事色彩。斯巴达还拥有众多奴隶，称为黑劳士，因此「斯巴達式」也成為「艱苦進行」的代名詞。在伯罗奔尼撒战争中，斯巴达及其同盟者战胜雅典军队并稱霸整个希腊，但不久後便被新興的底比斯打败，在北方的馬其頓崛起後，斯巴達在希臘失去影響力。

历史[编辑]

建立城邦[编辑]

斯巴達城的遺址

第一次麦西尼亚战争发生于麦西尼亚的麦西尼亚山

现在为世人所熟知的斯巴达指的是特洛伊战争80多年后多利亚人建立起来的斯巴达城邦，荷马史诗《伊利亚特》中迈锡尼的斯巴达王墨涅拉俄斯是更早时期的希腊人，他同后迈锡尼时期之斯巴达的唯一關聯只有相同的名字和地域[1]。

約公元前1100年至前950年期间，来自希臘东北方伊庇鲁斯和马其顿的多利亞（或譯多里安）人入侵希臘南部的伯羅奔尼撒半島，攻佔了东部地区后，定居于拉塞达埃蒙河谷，以斯巴达[a]为都[3]。讽刺的是，這些占领了原斯巴达地区的多利亞人本是鳩佔鵲巢，却仍被稱為斯巴達人。新斯巴達人並將被征服地区的原斯巴达人亦即迈锡尼原居民變為奴隸，並继续其侵略脚步，攻占半岛东南部的拉哥尼亚（或譯拉科尼亚）[1]。前七、八世紀，當希臘各城邦為了解決人口過剩與農用土地不足的問題，而紛紛向海外殖民時，斯巴達並沒有跟進，而是用向外擴張的方式解決，约于公元前736年，斯巴達人（多利亞人）又开始对曾為迈锡尼文化做出贡献的西部鄰邦美塞尼亞（或譯麦西尼亚）进行长达20年的第一次美塞尼亞戰爭[4]。美塞尼亚人不甘做野蛮人的奴隶，奋勇反击，發生第二次美塞尼亞戰爭，戰爭一度空前激烈，并一度几乎击垮斯巴达人，後來斯巴達人終獲勝利[5]。经过兩次美塞尼亚战争，斯巴达將多數的美塞尼亞人變為奴隸，與拉哥尼亞的原居民一樣，稱為黑劳士。抵抗力量中的幸存者被逐出伯罗奔尼撒半岛，一部分人逃往南義大利與西西里島，建立雷焦卡拉布里亚與墨西拿，另一部分人投奔雅典[5]。兩次美塞尼亞戰爭後，為了防止再有類似的叛變，來古格士為斯巴達變法，從此斯巴達轉型為軍國主義的城邦[1]。

组建同盟[编辑]

主条目：伯罗奔尼撒同盟

第二次美塞尼亚战争後，斯巴達又陸續進攻伯羅奔尼撒半島的其他城邦，提吉亞、阿古斯與伯羅奔尼撒半島諸多城邦，震懾於斯巴達的武力，都甘願受其領導，因而組成伯罗奔尼撒同盟，斯巴達並成為盟主，當時希臘城邦出現推翻僭主統治的情況時，斯巴達常以維護寡頭政治的維護者之姿，時常去干涉其他城邦的內政[6]，前508年，斯巴達曾接受伊薩哥拉斯（英语：Isagoras）的請求，試圖讓雅典成為斯巴達的附庸，後來這項計畫卻落空[7]，但是斯巴達仍然不改這種干涉作風，也引起其他城邦的不滿，這些城邦反而支持雅典對抗斯巴達，斯巴達便只能留在伯羅奔尼撒半島稱霸[8]。

波希戰爭[编辑]

绘于前5世纪的陶杯上的希腊重装步兵与波斯战士的战斗

主条目：波希戰爭

斯巴達人的驍勇善戰，可以由波希戰爭裡得見。在溫泉關戰役，斯巴達國王列奧尼達一世以其本國精兵300人、400名底比斯志願軍和6000名希臘各其它城邦的聯軍，在溫泉關抵擋了數量上遠遠超過他們的波斯軍隊，長達三天，使得波斯軍隊在頭兩天不得寸進，並且死傷慘重。但在第三天，一個希臘當地的居民背叛希臘陣營，帶領波斯軍隊沿著山區的小徑繞到希臘聯軍的後方，見此列奧尼達解散了希臘聯軍，留下300名斯巴達精兵一小股志願軍殿後[9]。在經過一番激烈廝殺後，列奧尼達所率領殿後的志願軍全軍覆滅，但成功阻止波斯國王薛西斯一世所統率的大軍前進，給予希臘聯軍時間予以準備，結果最後希臘戰勝了波斯，斯巴達人應記一功[9]。

爭霸希臘[编辑]

伯罗奔尼撒战争形势图

主条目：伯罗奔尼撒战争

波斯戰爭後，斯巴達為了與雅典爭奪霸權，因此統率其主導的伯罗奔尼撒联盟與以雅典为首的提洛同盟進行了伯罗奔尼撒战争[10]。这场战争从前431年一直持续到前404年，其中双方幾度停火，斯巴達不惜違反希臘傳統與波斯締結盟約，在波斯幫助之下，斯巴达建造一支足以威脅雅典的海軍，最后終於获胜[10]。但雙方均打至筋疲力竭，結果斯巴達在稱霸希臘不久後便被新興的底比斯打敗[11]，其後再受挫於馬其頓將軍安提帕特，從此走向衰亡。

走向衰亡[编辑]

在亞歷山大大帝死后，斯巴達脫離了馬其頓帝國的陰影，但其衰亡已不可逆轉。由於斯巴達公民的死亡，來古格士法難以維持，開始大量使用黑勞士補充兵源。雖然克里昂米尼三世在位時，曾嘗試進行改革，一度使斯巴達重現生機，但在公元前222年，克里昂米尼三世統率的斯巴達軍隊在塞拉西亚战役敗給了亞该亞同盟和马其顿国王安提柯三世的联军，克里昂米尼三世被逼逃亡，斯巴達從此走向衰亡。最後在公元前192年，斯巴达被亚该亚同盟吞併，而亚该亚同盟不久亦為羅馬共和國所滅，斯巴達成為羅馬城市，從此不再以獨立城邦的姿態出現[12]。而部分來古格士法還殘存了相當長的一段時間，斯巴達也因此淪為了羅馬富人獵奇的旅遊目的地。

特色[编辑]

斯巴達人經常發動戰爭，拥有的步兵训练嚴格且紮實，是古代世界上作戰能力高强的步兵之一。生产以農業為主，過著簡單的生活，与當時的雅典不同，如不太重视知識、文化發展等等。

政治制度[编辑]

斯巴达政治制度

斯巴達之政治制度相傳為古時立法者來古格士所定，有兩位國王，五位執政官及元老院、公民会议（英语：Apella）等機關[13]。

二王制[编辑]

斯巴達行「二王制」，兩個國王分別來自於較高級的亞基亞德家族，與比較低級的歐里龐提家族，但實際上兩個國王的權力均甚小，大權皆在五位執政官之手。國王不過為祭司長、裁判長、出征時之元帥、元老院中的議長而已。至於斯巴達之所以必置二王，即係利用其互相傾軋以王制王之故。斯巴達對於其國王防制頗嚴。國王不得與外國聯婚，防其樹立外援。又不許二王室互相聯婚，防二王的權力合一[14]。

二位國王只有在戰時才有權力，其中一個國王擔任統帥，另一個國王則負責留守。而平時，重大事務均由「長老會議」決定，而長老會議則由28個人組成。除此以外，有5個執政官會幫助國王處理政務，並由元老院作出決定。雖然實際上元老院握有實權，但所有重要事務在名義上還需要公民大會通過，方為有效[14]。

執政官[编辑]

斯巴達的執政官五人，每年由人民公决，權力遠在國王之上，得擁護國法，監督國家一切公權私權，又可召集元老院及公民会议，對於國王有罪，亦得加以審判。但執政官的任期僅一年，且每事須經五人的同意始有效，故其權力雖大，理论上仍有限制；然而由于该职务并无连任限制，故此后来执政官成为斯巴达城邦中最有实权的职务[14]。

元老院與公民会议[编辑]

元老院的議員併同二國王共三十人，元老院議員非六十歲以上免役者不能擔任。對於立法、行政、司法之事，概得與聞。每一法案，均須由此提出，非經其表決者，不得提出於公民会议。由全體公民普選而得之公民会议實為元老院的附屬機關，雖有表示贊成或反對元老院所議決的法案之自由，可是實際上是不敢反對的[14]。

公民教育[编辑]

斯巴達戰士的雕像

斯巴達各種制度中的最值得注意者為他們的公民教育。由於斯巴達以少數多利安民族，統治大多數的亞該亞農奴。為了有效防止農奴造反並能在眾邦林立的希臘世界中適應生存，因此訂定一套完整的公民教育制度。「國家至上，軍事第一」是他們的基本政策。男人為了國家作戰；女人為了國家育兒。國王猶如兵團司令，教師就像軍訓教官；學校等於兵營，家庭宛如一個役男生產所[15]。斯巴达人轻视文化教育。青少年只要求会写命令和便条就可以了。斯巴达人要求他们的子弟语言简明，直截了当，从小养成沉默寡言的习惯，说话就像军事口令一样。因为害怕外邦人移居有碍它的军事生活，斯巴达实施严格排外政策，禁止外邦人无故入境。

斯巴達的國家體系基本上已完全軍事化。

嬰兒[编辑]

斯巴達猶如一個大軍營，其公民的嬰兒剛出生時，便要被檢驗體質，如果不合要求，便會被葡萄酒灌死，拋棄至荒山野嶺。合格的會用葡萄酒為其嬰兒洗澡，便交還給嬰兒的母親撫養到七歲[16]。

男孩[编辑]

男孩在七歲前是由雙親撫養的，但其父母從小則會訓練他們成為獨立堅強的戰士，甚至有點冷酷無情。七歲後便會編入團隊進行殘酷嚴格的軍事訓練。他們要被訓練為絕對服從，身手敏捷，不怕艱苦的軍人，所以每年均會被燒得滾燙的皮鞭鞭打，並不許求饒或叫喊[17]。當男孩過了12歲，便會被編入少年隊，只能光身赤腳，不論天氣冷暖均只許穿一件外套，並只可在軍營裡作少量進食，逼使他們在外面偷取食物，鍛鍊他們的身手。若被人發現，則會被處罰，因為這證明他身手不靈活[16]。同時也有訓練會將他們丟到荒郊野外，要求他們靠己身之力進行野外求生、與野獸搏鬥，考驗生存能力。至20歲後，則成為正規軍人。30歲時便會成親，但還是要每天作軍訓[16]。60歲時便會退役，國家會對他們比較優待，但仍要作為預備軍，隨時候命[16]。

女孩[编辑]

斯巴达女性相对于其他古希腊城邦的女性而言拥有比较高的社会地位，按当时规定可以继承40%的家族财产。女孩過了七歲仍留在家裡，但並不從事刺繡等雜務，而是進行艱苦的體格訓練。因為斯巴達人認為只有強壯的母親，方能孕育出勇悍的戰士[18]。因此斯巴達的婦女都十分堅忍，並不怕看到兒子浴血沙場。當兒子要上戰場時，她們並不會為其祝福，而是給他一個盾牌，並對其說：「孩子，帶著盾牌回來，不然就躺在盾牌上。」即謂：如果你不能凱旋歸來，就應戰死沙場而還[18]。

《波塞冬之怒》 V. Kosov 137x198 布面油畫 2016

斯巴達有一首最有名的古詩，歌頌一位八個兒子全部為國犧牲的母親。當這位母親知道八個兒子全部陣亡，她並沒有流下眼淚，在凱旋大會表示：

祖國斯巴達呀，我就是為了他們為你犧牲，才生下他們八個，如今我的心願已經完成了[18]。

社會階層[编辑]

斯巴達的社會階層分為斯巴達人、庇里阿西人、希洛人三個階級，這種階級是不能改變的種姓制度。

斯巴達人[编辑]

第一階級為斯巴達人，為征服者多利亞人的子孫，享有完全的公民權者，他們都住在斯巴達城內，儘管人數很少，卻掌握國家的軍政大權，雖有田而不自耕，其專門之職業為服兵役與任官吏二事[19]。

庇里阿西人[编辑]

第二為庇里阿西人，為多利亞人入侵時，沒有抵抗而順從的居民，從事於工商業而無參政權，雖為自由民，然不得享有完全的公民權利，他們都住在斯巴達城周圍，及邊境山區和海岸地方；戰時需要為斯巴達軍隊支援[20]。

希洛人[编辑]

第三階級為黑勞士，意為農奴。他們常隸屬於土地而為第一階級的人服勞奉養而耕作，生活在農村上，沒有公民權與基本人權，被認為是國家的財產；戰時亦隨第一階級之後以服軍役[21]。

對黑劳士的奴役[编辑]

黑劳士的生活極其艱苦，他們在戰時要作先鋒，但又沒有任何權利，斯巴達人可以隨時殺死他們[21]。黑劳士（希洛人）是斯巴達人的公有財產，在節日裡，斯巴達人經常灌醉黑劳士，並將他們拖至公共場所任意欺凌。黑劳士不論如何，每年均要被鞭笞一次，其目的就是要黑劳士牢記其奴隸身份[17]。甚至每年组织斯巴达少年结队杀戮希洛人（即为克里普提），以此培养斯巴达少年的战斗精神，也削弱希洛人的反抗[17]。亦因如此，黑劳士曾经多次发动起义。有學者認為，斯巴達對外的連年戰爭使黑勞士的負擔重到難以承受，但許多受剝削的黑勞士，後來找到機會擺脫了斯巴達人的剝削和奴役（如第三次美塞尼亞戰爭中重新獲得獨立），讓原本習慣於依靠剝削黑勞士（美塞尼亞人）為生的斯巴達人因此難以謀生，是斯巴達衰落的原因之一[22]。最後這種制度在亚历山大大帝征服斯巴達後被廢除。

經濟政策[编辑]

來古格士所推行經濟制度，完全為軍事需求和維持斯巴达人的统治地位。

土地國有[编辑]

為了避免土地兼併現象的發生，造成社會貧富差距加大，實行「土地國有」政策，將所有土地全部收歸政府，受予給斯巴達公民，其再將土地發放被統治的農奴進行耕種，向他們收取糧食，而統治者的斯巴達公民可以專心進行軍事訓練，對內鎮壓奴隸的反抗，對外進行侵略戰爭[23]。

鑄造鐵幣[编辑]

為了平均社會財富，斯巴達發行一種鐵幣，由於沉重、價值較低，所以攜帶不便、流通不易，一方面避免商人屯積貨物，獲取暴利，另一方面，使外國商品，不易打入斯巴達市場，大大降低斯巴達財富外流的可能性[23]。

公食制度[编辑]

凡斯巴達男子不論貧富，皆會食於公共食堂，食品粗疏，除執政官外，尊貴如國王亦須在此會食。食時得暢談國事，少年子弟因得於此獲得政治上的知識[23]。

評價[编辑]

斯巴達採取軍國主義的獨裁或寡頭體制，並掌控整個國家經濟，除了為了防止麥西尼亞人的反抗其統治外，地理上的孤立也是原因，斯巴達的東北邊與西邊都是山脈，不易與其他城邦產生文化交流，造成斯巴達文化的發展停滯不前，也沒有思想家或作家誕生，因此在希臘文化中並沒留下太多貢獻[24]。

參見[编辑]

斯巴達考古博物館

斯巴達國王列表

古希臘城市列表（英语：List of ancient Greek cities）

註釋[编辑]

^ 為可供耕種的平原[2]。

參考文獻[编辑]

引用[编辑]

^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 劉增泉. 第三章第三節〈早期的斯巴達〉. 《希臘史—歐洲文明的起源》. 2003: 31頁.

^ 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第一節〈斯巴達的社會階級〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 152頁.

^ 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第一節〈「希倫子孫」的民族精神〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 145-147頁.

^ 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第三節〈第一次全西尼亞戰爭〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 164–166頁.

^ 5.0 5.1 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第三節〈第二次全西尼亞戰爭〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 166–168頁.

^ 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第四節〈伯羅奔尼撒同盟〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 169頁.

^ 馮作民. 第三篇第四章第一節〈斯巴達在雅典建傀儡政權〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 195–196頁.

^ 馮作民. 第三篇第四章第二節〈雅典人奮勇抗戰光復故國〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 196–197頁.

^ 9.0 9.1 王尚德. 第四章第二節〈血戰溫泉關〉. 《希臘文明》. 2010: 111–114頁.

^ 10.0 10.1 王尚德. 第四章第三節〈伯羅奔尼撒戰爭〉. 《希臘文明》. 2010: 116頁.

^ 王尚德. 第四章第三節〈留克特拉戰役〉. 《希臘文明》. 2010: 124–126頁.

^ 劉增泉. 第三章第三節〈斯巴達寡頭政治的衰弱〉. 《希臘史—歐洲文明的起源》. 2003: 34頁.

^ 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第二節〈來喀古斷然變法〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 155-156頁.

^ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第二節〈極權主義的政治制度〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 156–157頁.

^ 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第二節〈軍國主義的教育法規〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 157頁.

^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第二節〈男子教育〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 157–159頁.

^ 17.0 17.1 17.2 郭豫斌. 第73回〈全民皆兵的斯巴達〉. 《圖解世界史—古代卷》. 2007: 230–233頁.

^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第二節〈女子教育〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 159-160頁.

^ 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第一節〈斯巴達〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 152–153頁.

^ 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第一節〈邊民〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 153頁.

^ 21.0 21.1 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第一節〈農奴〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 153–154頁.

^ 徐松岩. 黑劳士制度、土地制度与“平等者公社”的兴衰（下）. 中國世界古代史研究網. 2004. （原始内容存档于2013-10-20）.

^ 23.0 23.1 23.2 馮作民. 第三篇第三章第二節〈侵略主義的經濟政策〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 161–162頁.

^ 王曾才. 第二章第一節〈斯巴達的政治、社會和經濟〉. 《世界通史》. 2006: 87–91頁.

来源[编辑]

非中文资料

斯巴達

W. G. Forest. A History of Sparta, 950-192 B.C.. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1968. （英文）

Ernle Bradford（英语：Ernle Bradford）. The Battle for the West-Thermopylae 480. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981. （英文）

Paul Cartledge（英语：Paul Cartledge）. Spartan Reflections. London: Duckworth, 2001. （英文）

中文资料

《古代城邦史研究》，日知主編，北京人民出版社，1989年

《西洋全史（第3冊）：希臘城邦》，馮作民編著，台北，燕京文化，1975年

《希臘史—歐洲文明的起源》，三民書局，2003年，ISBN 978-957-14-3751-4

《世界通史》，三民書局，1993年，ISBN 978-957-14-4602-8

《希臘文明》，華滋出版，2010年，ISBN 978-986-6271-13-7

《圖解世界史—古代卷》，好讀出版，2007年，ISBN 978-986-178-040-5

查论编古希腊

古希腊大纲（英语：Outline of ancient Greece）

古希腊时间线（英语：Timeline of ancient Greece）

古希腊古希腊地区历史时期

基克拉泽斯文明

米诺斯文明

迈锡尼文明

希腊黑暗时代

古風時期

古典希臘時期

希臘化時代的希臘

希腊的罗马时期

古希腊地区

爱琴海

伊奧利亞

亚历山大

安提阿

卡帕多细亚

克里特

賽普勒斯

多利安六城邦（英语：Doric hexapolis）

以弗所

伊庇魯斯同盟

達達尼爾海峽

愛奧尼亞

爱奥尼亚海

馬其頓王國

大希腊

米利都

伯罗奔尼撒

帕加马

本都

克里米亚

古代殖民地

城邦政治军事城邦

阿尔戈斯

古雅典

拜占庭

哈尔基斯

科林斯 (古希腊)

埃雷特里亞

克基拉島

拉里萨

迈加洛波利

墨伽拉

罗得岛

萨摩斯岛

斯巴达

锡拉库扎

底比斯 (希臘)

政治

五百人會議

联盟（英语：Koinon）

Proxeny（英语：Proxeny）

將軍 (古希臘)

Tagus (title)（英语：Tagus (title)）

僭主

近邻同盟

雅典式民主

阿哥拉

亚略巴古

雅典集会

Graphe paranomon（英语：Graphe paranomon）

民眾法庭

陶片放逐制

斯巴达宪法（英语：Spartan Constitution）

公民会议（英语：Apella）

五督政官

元老院

馬其頓王國

同盟议事会（英语：Synedrion）

马其顿联盟（英语：Koinon of Macedonians）

军事

希腊参与的战争列表（英语：List of wars involving Greece）

雅典军事（英语：Athenian military）

馬其頓安提柯王朝陸軍

馬其頓阿吉德王朝陸軍

投射機

克里特弓箭手（英语：Cretan archers）

希腊化军队（英语：Hellenistic armies）

马兵（英语：Hippeis）

希臘重裝步兵

夥友騎兵

马其顿方阵

方陣 (軍事)

轻盾兵

步兵夥友

薩里沙長矛

底比斯圣队

斯基里提斯人（英语：Sciritae）

塞琉古军队（英语：Seleucid army）

斯巴达军队

Toxotai（英语：Toxotai）

Xiphos（英语：Xiphos）

緒斯同騎槍

人物古希腊人物列表（英语：List of ancient Greeks）统治者（英语：Lists of rulers of Greece）

阿尔戈斯国王列表（英语：List of kings of Argos）

雅典执政官列表

雅典國王

科马基尼国王列表（英语：List of rulers of Commagene）

繼業者

呂底亞國王列表

马其顿国王列表

List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia（英语：List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia）

阿塔罗斯国王列表

本都统治者列表

斯巴达国王列表

叙拉古僭主列表（英语：List of tyrants of Syracuse）

哲人

阿那克萨哥拉

阿那克西曼德

阿那克西美尼

安提西尼

亚里士多德

德谟克利特

锡诺普的第欧根尼

恩培多克勒

伊壁鸠鲁

高爾吉亞

赫拉克利特

希帕提婭

留基伯

巴门尼德

柏拉图

普罗泰戈拉

毕达哥拉斯

苏格拉底

泰勒斯

季蒂昂的芝诺

扎莱乌库斯

作家

埃斯库罗斯

伊索

阿尔卡埃乌斯

阿尔基罗库斯

阿里斯托芬

巴库利德斯

欧里庇得斯

希羅多德

赫西俄德

希波纳克斯

荷马

伊比库斯

琉善

米南德

弥涅墨斯

尼阿西斯

斐洛克利（英语：Philocles）

品达

普魯塔克

波利比烏斯

莎孚

西莫尼德斯

索福克勒斯

斯特西克鲁斯

泰奥格尼斯

修昔底德

提谟克勒翁

提尔泰奥斯

色诺芬

其他

阿格西莱二世

阿基斯二世

阿尔西比亚德斯

亚历山大大帝

西庫昂的阿拉圖斯

阿基米德

阿斯帕齊婭

狄摩西尼

伊巴密濃達

欧几里得

喜帕恰斯

希波克拉底

列奥尼达一世

來古格士

吕山德

克罗托那的米罗

小米太亞德

帕萨尼阿斯（英语：Pausanias (general)）

伯里克利

腓力二世 (马其顿)

菲洛皮門

普拉克西特列斯

克劳狄乌斯·托勒密

皮洛士

梭伦

地米斯托克利

群体

古希腊哲学家列表

古希腊剧作家列表（英语：List of ancient Greek playwrights）

古希腊诗人列表（英语：List of Ancient Greek poets）

古希腊独裁者列表（英语：List of ancient Greek tyrants）

按文化

古希腊部落列表（英语：List of ancient Greek tribes）

色雷斯希腊人列表（英语：List of Thracian Greeks）

马其顿国王列表

社會文化社会

农业

希腊化历法（英语：Hellenic calendars）

服饰

钱币

饮食

經濟

派地亚

古希腊节日（英语：Athenian festivals）

丧葬

同性戀

古希腊法（英语：Ancient Greek law）

奥林匹克

少年愛

哲学

性交易

宗教

奴隶制

战争

古希腊婚俗（英语：Ancient Greek wedding customs）

葡萄酒

藝術和科学

建築

復興式建築

天文學

文学

数学

醫學

音乐

古希腊音乐体系（英语：Musical system of ancient Greece）

陶器

雕塑

科技

戏剧

宗教

丧葬

神话

神話人物表

神廟

十二主神

冥界

圣地

埃莱夫西纳

德尔斐

提洛岛

多多纳

奥林匹斯山

奥林匹亚

建筑

雅典国库（英语：Athenian Treasury）

狮子门

Long Walls（英语：Long Walls）

Philippeion（英语：Philippeion）

狄俄倪索斯剧场

萨摩斯隧道

古希臘神廟

阿法埃婭神廟

阿耳忒弥斯神庙

雅典娜勝利神廟

厄瑞克忒翁神庙

赫淮斯托斯神庙

奧林匹亞赫拉神廟

帕德嫩神廟

萨莫色雷斯岛神庙群（英语：Samothrace temple complex）

奧林匹亞宙斯神廟

语言

原始希臘

邁錫尼

荷馬（英语：Homeric Greek）

古希腊方言（英语：Ancient Greek dialects）

伊歐里斯

阿卡狄亞—塞浦路斯

阿提卡

多利安希腊语（英语：Doric Greek）

爱奥尼亚希腊语（英语：Ionic Greek）

Locrian Greek（英语：Locrian Greek）

古馬其頓

Pamphylian Greek（英语：Pamphylian Greek）

通用

文字（英语：History of the Greek alphabet）

线形文字A

线形文字B

塞浦路斯音節文字

希腊字母

希腊数字

阿提卡数字（英语：Attic numerals）

古希腊殖民（英语：Greek colonisation）大希腊

萊切

布林迪西

Caulonia (ancient city)（英语：Caulonia (ancient city)）

卡萨博纳

克羅托內

庫邁

埃利亚

Heraclea Lucania（英语：Heraclea Lucania）

维博瓦伦蒂亚

奧特朗托

Krimisa（英语：Krimisa）

Laüs（英语：Laüs）

洛克里

Medma（英语：Medma）

Metapontum（英语：Metapontum）

尼亚波利斯

Pandosia (Lucania)（英语：Pandosia (Lucania)）

波塞冬尼亚

Policastro Bussentino（英语：Policastro Bussentino）

雷吉翁

Scylletium（英语：Scylletium）

Siris (Magna Graecia)（英语：Siris (Magna Graecia)）

锡巴里斯

Sybaris on the Traeis（英语：Sybaris on the Traeis）

他林敦

Terina (ancient city)（英语：Terina (ancient city)）

Thurii（英语：Thurii）

西西里岛

阿格里真托

Akrai（英语：Akrai）

Akrillai（英语：Akrillai）

Apollonia (Sicily)（英语：Apollonia (Sicily)）

卡罗尼亚

Casmenae（英语：Casmenae）

卡塔尼亞

杰拉

Helorus（英语：Helorus）

恩纳

Heraclea Minoa（英语：Heraclea Minoa）

希梅拉

Hybla Gereatis（英语：Hybla Gereatis）

Hybla Heraea（英语：Hybla Heraea）

Kamarina, Sicily（英语：Kamarina, Sicily）

伦蒂尼

Megara Hyblaea（英语：Megara Hyblaea）

墨西拿

纳克索斯（英语：Naxos (Sicily)）

塞傑斯塔

塞利农特

叙拉古

陶尔米纳

夏卡 (阿格里真托省)

Tindari（英语：Tindari）

埃奥利群岛

萨利纳岛

帕纳雷阿岛

阿利庫迪島

巴西卢佐岛

利帕里岛

菲利庫迪島

斯通波利島

武尔卡诺岛

撒丁岛

奧爾比亞

昔兰尼加

贝达

巴尔卡（英语：Barca (ancient city)）

班加西

昔兰尼 (阿波洛尼亚（英语：Apollonia, Cyrenaica）)

托勒密（英语：Ptolemais, Cyrenaica）

伊比利亚半岛

Akra Leuke（英语：Akra Leuke）

比利亚霍约萨

Empúries（英语：Empúries）

德尼亚

阿尔哈拉克

Sant Martí d'Empúries（英语：Sant Martí d'Empúries）

Menace (Greek settlement)（英语：Menace (Greek settlement)）

圣玛丽亚港

圣波拉

罗德

萨洛 (塔拉戈纳省)

萨贡托

黑海北岸

波里斯提尼斯

Charax, Crimea（英语：Charax, Crimea）

克森尼索

狄俄斯库里亚斯

叶夫帕托里亚

阿纳帕

Tmutarakan（英语：Tmutarakan）

Kepoi（英语：Kepoi）

Kimmerikon（英语：Kimmerikon）

Myrmekion（英语：Myrmekion）

Nikonion（英语：Nikonion）

Nymphaion (Crimea)（英语：Nymphaion (Crimea)）

奧里維亞

潘提卡彭

法纳戈里亚（英语：Phanagoria）

皮提乌斯

塔纳伊斯

狄奥多西亚

提拉斯

Tyritake（英语：Tyritake）

黑海南岸

迪奥尼索波利斯

奥德索斯

安基阿卢斯

美森布里亚

阿波洛尼亚

Kıyıköy（英语：Kıyıköy）

本都赫拉克勒亚（英语：Heraclea Pontica）

提乌姆（英语：Tium）

阿瑪斯拉

Cytorus（英语：Cytorus）

Abonoteichos（英语：Abonoteichos）

锡诺普

Zaliche（英语：Zaliche）

阿米索斯

云耶

波勒蒙尼翁

泰爾梅

奧爾杜

吉雷松

特里波里斯 (本都)（英语：Tripolis (Pontus)）

特拉布宗

里祖斯

帕扎爾

巴统

法息斯（英语：Phasis (town)）

列表

古希腊城市列表（英语：List of ancient Greek cities）

List of cities in ancient Epirus（英语：List of cities in ancient Epirus）

古希腊人列表（英语：List of ancient Greeks）

古希腊地名表（英语：List of Greek place names）

List of stoae（英语：List of stoae）

古希臘神廟列表

古希腊剧院列表（英语：List of ancient Greek theatres）

分类

导览（英语：Portal:Ancient_Greece）

大纲（英语：Outline of ancient Greece）

规范控制

WorldCat Identities

BNE: XX451220

BNF: cb14260999p (data)

GND: 4056054-5

ISNI: 0000 0001 1260 9989

J9U: 987007565731705171

LCCN: sh85126330

NDL: 00628643

NKC: ge130899

SUDOC: 085676985

VIAF: 316429266

取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=斯巴达&oldid=80260714”

分类：192年終結的國家或政權希臘城邦斯巴达前11世紀建立的國家或政權隐藏分类：维基数据存在坐标数据的页面在infobox country或infobox former country使用symbol caption或类型字段的页面包含BNE标识符的维基百科条目包含BNF标识符的维基百科条目包含GND标识符的维基百科条目包含ISNI标识符的维基百科条目包含J9U标识符的维基百科条目包含LCCN标识符的维基百科条目包含NDL标识符的维基百科条目包含NKC标识符的维基百科条目包含SUDOC标识符的维基百科条目包含VIAF标识符的维基百科条目使用ISBN魔术链接的页面

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Sparta - Wikipedia

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(Top)

1Names

2Geography

3Mythology

4Archaeology of the classical period

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4.1Menelaion

5History

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5.1Prehistory, "dark age" and archaic period

5.2Classical Sparta

5.3Hellenistic and Roman Sparta

5.4Postclassical and modern Sparta

6Structure of Classical Spartan society

Toggle Structure of Classical Spartan society subsection

6.1Constitution

6.2Citizenship

6.3Non citizens

6.3.1Helots

6.3.2Perioikoi

6.4Economy

7Life in Classical Sparta

Toggle Life in Classical Sparta subsection

7.1Birth and death

7.2Education

7.3Military life

7.4Agriculture, food, and diet

7.5Marriage

8Role of women

Toggle Role of women subsection

8.1Political, social, and economic equality

8.2Historic women

9Laconophilia

10Notable ancient Spartans

11See also

12Notes

13References

14Sources

15Further reading

16External links

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Sparta

98 languages

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Coordinates: 37°4′55″N 22°25′25″E / 37.08194°N 22.42361°E / 37.08194; 22.42361

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

City-state in ancient Greece

This article is about the ancient city-state. For modern-day Sparta, see Sparta, Laconia. For other uses, see Sparta (disambiguation).

"Spartan" redirects here. For other uses, see Spartan (disambiguation). For the mythical people associated with Ares, see Spartoi.

"Lacedaemon" redirects here. For the king, see Lacedaemon (mythology).

LacedaemonΛακεδαίμων (Ancient Greek)900s–192 BCTerritory of ancient Sparta before 371 BC, with Perioecic cities in blueCapitalSparta37°4′55″N 22°25′25″E / 37.08194°N 22.42361°E / 37.08194; 22.42361Common languagesDoric GreekReligion Greek polytheismGovernmentDiarchyKing • c. 930–900 BC Agis I• 207–192 BC Nabis

Legislature

Ephors

Gerousia

Historical eraClassical antiquity• Foundation 900s BC• Messenian War 685–668 BC• Battle of Thermopylae 480 BC• Peloponnesian War 431–404 BC• Battle of Mantinea 362 BC• Annexed by Achaea 192 BC

Preceded by

Succeeded by

Greek Dark Ages

Achaean League

This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.

Hollow Lacedaemon. Site of the Menelaion, the ancient shrine to Helen and Menelaus constructed in the Bronze Age city that stood on the hill of Therapne on the left bank of the Eurotas River overlooking the future site of Dorian Sparta. Across the valley the successive ridges of Mount Taygetus are in evidence.

Sparta[1] was a prominent city-state in Laconia in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (Λακεδαίμων, Lakedaímōn), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement on the banks of the Eurotas River in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese.[2] Around 650 BC, it rose to become the dominant military land-power in ancient Greece.

Given its military pre-eminence, Sparta was recognized as the leading force of the unified Greek military during the Greco-Persian Wars, in rivalry with the rising naval power of Athens.[3] Sparta was the principal enemy of Athens during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC),[4] from which it emerged victorious after the Battle of Aegospotami. The decisive Battle of Leuctra against Thebes in 371 BC ended the Spartan hegemony, although the city-state maintained its political independence until its forced integration into the Achaean League in 192 BC. The city nevertheless recovered much autonomy after the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC and prospered during the Roman Empire, as its antiquarian customs attracted many Roman tourists. However, Sparta was sacked in 396 AD by the Visigothic king Alaric, and underwent a long period of decline, especially in the Middle Ages, when many of its citizens moved to Mystras. Modern Sparta is the capital of the southern Greek region of Laconia and a center for processing citrus and olives.

Sparta was unique in ancient Greece for its social system and constitution, which were supposedly introduced by the semi-mythical legislator Lycurgus. His laws configured the Spartan society to maximize military proficiency at all costs, focusing all social institutions on military training and physical development. The inhabitants of Sparta were stratified as Spartiates (citizens with full rights), mothakes (free non-Spartiate people descended from Spartans), perioikoi (free non-Spartiates), and helots (state-owned enslaved non-Spartan locals). Spartiate men underwent the rigorous agoge training regimen, and Spartan phalanx brigades were widely considered to be among the best in battle. Spartan women enjoyed considerably more rights than elsewhere in classical antiquity.

Sparta was frequently a subject of fascination in its own day, as well as in Western culture following the revival of classical learning. The admiration of Sparta is known as Laconophilia. Bertrand Russell wrote:Sparta had a double effect on Greek thought: through the reality, and through the myth.... The reality enabled the Spartans to defeat Athens in war; the myth influenced Plato's political theory, and that of countless subsequent writers.... [The] ideals that it favors had a great part in framing the doctrines of Rousseau, Nietzsche, and National Socialism.[5]

Names

The earliest attested term referring to Lacedaemon is the Mycenaean Greek , ra-ke-da-mi-ni-jo, "Lakedaimonian", written in Linear B syllabic script,[6][n 1] the equivalent of the later Greek Λακεδαιμόνιος, Lakedaimonios (Latin: Lacedaemonius).[12][13]

Eurotas River

The ancient Greeks used one of three words to refer to the Spartan city-state and its location. First, "Sparta" refers primarily to the main cluster of settlements in the valley of the Eurotas River.[14] The second word, "Lacedaemon" (Λακεδαίμων),[15] was often used as an adjective and is the name referenced in the works of Homer and the historians Herodotus and Thucydides. The third term, "Laconice" (Λακωνική), referred to the immediate area around the town of Sparta, the plateau east of the Taygetos mountains,[16] and sometimes to all the regions under direct Spartan control, including Messenia.

Herodotus seems to use "Lacedaemon" for the Mycenaean Greek citadel at Therapne, in contrast to the lower town of Sparta. This term could be used synonymously with Sparta, but typically it denoted the terrain in which the city was located.[17] In Homer it is typically combined with epithets of the countryside: wide, lovely, shining and most often hollow and broken (full of ravines),[18] suggesting the Eurotas Valley. "Sparta" on the other hand is described as "the country of lovely women", an epithet for people.

The residents of Sparta were often called Lacedaemonians. This epithet utilized the plural of the adjective Lacedaemonius (Greek: Λακεδαιμόνιοι; Latin: Lacedaemonii, but also Lacedaemones). The ancients sometimes used a back-formation, referring to the land of Lacedaemon as Lacedaemonian country. As most words for "country" were feminine, the adjective was in the feminine: Lacedaemonia (Λακεδαιμονία, Lakedaimonia). Eventually, the adjective came to be used alone.

"Lacedaemonia" was not in general use during the classical period and before. It does occur in Greek as an equivalent of Laconia and Messenia during the Roman and early Byzantine periods, mostly in ethnographers and lexica of place names. For example, Hesychius of Alexandria's Lexicon (5th century AD) defines Agiadae as a "place in Lacedaemonia" named after Agis.[19] The actual transition may be captured by Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae (7th century AD), an etymological dictionary. Isidore relied heavily on Orosius' Historiarum Adversum Paganos (5th century AD) and Eusebius of Caesarea's Chronicon (early 5th century AD), as did Orosius. The latter defines Sparta to be Lacedaemonia Civitas,[20] but Isidore defines Lacedaemonia as founded by Lacedaemon, son of Semele, which is consistent with Eusebius' explanation.[21] There is a rare use, perhaps the earliest of "Lacedaemonia", in Diodorus Siculus' The Library of History,[22] but probably with Χώρα (‘’chōra’’, "country") suppressed.

Lakedaimona was until 2006 the name of a province in the modern Greek prefecture of Laconia.

Geography

Antique Map of Classical City of Sparta (based on ancient sources and not archaeology).

Sparta is located in the region of Laconia, in the south-eastern Peloponnese. Ancient Sparta was built on the banks of the Evrotas River, the largest river of Laconia, which provided it with a source of fresh water. The Evrotas Valley is a natural fortress, bounded to the west by Mt. Taygetus (2,407 m) and to the east by Mt. Parnon (1,935 m). To the north, Laconia is separated from Arcadia by hilly uplands reaching 1000 m in altitude. These natural defenses worked to Sparta's advantage and protected it from sacking and invasion. Though landlocked, Sparta had a vassal harbor, Gytheio, on the Laconian Gulf.

Mythology

Lacedaemon (Greek: Λακεδαίμων) was a mythical king of Laconia.[23] The son of Zeus by the nymph Taygete, he married Sparta, the daughter of Eurotas, by whom he became the father of Amyclas, Eurydice, and Asine. As king, he named his country after himself and the city after his wife.[23] He was believed to have built the sanctuary of the Charites, which stood between Sparta and Amyclae, and to have given to those divinities the names of Cleta and Phaenna. A shrine was erected to him in the neighborhood of Therapne.

Tyrtaeus, an archaic era Spartan writer, is the earliest source to connect the origin myth of the Spartans to the lineage of the hero Heracles; later authors, such as Diodorus Siculus, Herodotus, and Apollodorus, also made mention of Spartans understanding themselves to be descendants of Heracles.[24][25][26][27]

Archaeology of the classical period

The theater of ancient Sparta with Mt. Taygetus in the background.

Thucydides wrote:

Suppose the city of Sparta to be deserted, and nothing left but the temples and the ground-plan, distant ages would be very unwilling to believe that the power of the Lacedaemonians was at all equal to their fame. Their city is not built continuously, and has no splendid temples or other edifices; it rather resembles a group of villages, like the ancient towns of Hellas, and would therefore make a poor show.[28][29]

Until the early 20th century, the chief ancient buildings at Sparta were the theatre, of which, however, little showed above ground except portions of the retaining walls; the so-called Tomb of Leonidas, a quadrangular building, perhaps a temple, constructed of immense blocks of stone and containing two chambers; the foundation of an ancient bridge over the Eurotas; the ruins of a circular structure; some remains of late Roman fortifications; several brick buildings and mosaic pavements.[28]

The remaining archaeological wealth consisted of inscriptions, sculptures, and other objects collected in the local museum, founded by Stamatakis in 1872 and enlarged in 1907. Partial excavation of the round building was undertaken in 1892 and 1893 by the American School at Athens. The structure has been since found to be a semicircular retaining wall of Hellenic origin that was partly restored during the Roman period.[28]

Ruins of the Temple of Artemis Orthia

In 1904, the British School at Athens began a thorough exploration of Laconia, and in the following year excavations were made at Thalamae, Geronthrae, and Angelona near Monemvasia. In 1906, excavations began in Sparta itself.[28]

A "small circus" (as described by Leake) proved to be a theatre-like building constructed soon after 200 AD around the altar and in front of the Temple of Artemis Orthia. It is believed that musical and gymnastic contests took place here, as well as the famous flogging ordeal administered to Spartan boys (diamastigosis). The temple, which can be dated to the 2nd century BC, rests on the foundation of an older temple of the 6th century, and close beside it were found the remains of a yet earlier temple, dating from the 9th or even the 10th century. The votive offerings in clay, amber, bronze, ivory and lead dating from the 9th to the 4th centuries BC, which were found in great profusion within the precinct range, supply invaluable information about early Spartan art.[28]

Remaining section of wall that surrounded ancient Sparta

In 1907, the location of the sanctuary of Athena "of the Brazen House" (Χαλκίοικος, Chalkioikos) was determined to be on the acropolis immediately above the theatre. Though the actual temple is almost completely destroyed, the site has produced the longest extant archaic inscription in Laconia, numerous bronze nails and plates, and a considerable number of votive offerings. The city-wall, built in successive stages from the 4th to the 2nd century, was traced for a great part of its circuit, which measured 48 stades or nearly 10 km (6 miles) (Polyb. 1X. 21). The late Roman wall enclosing the acropolis, part of which probably dates from the years following the Gothic raid of 262 AD, was also investigated. Besides the actual buildings discovered, a number of points were situated and mapped in a general study of Spartan topography, based upon the description of Pausanias.[28]

In terms of domestic archaeology, little is known about Spartan houses and villages before the Archaic period, but the best evidence comes from excavations at Nichoria in Messenia where postholes have been found. These villages were open and consisted of small and simple houses built with stone foundations and clay walls.[30]

Menelaion

Main article: Menelaion

The Menelaion

The Menelaion is a shrine associated with Menelaus, located east of Sparta, by the river Eurotas, on the hill Profitis Ilias (Coordinates: 37°03′57″N 22°27′13″E / 37.0659°N 22.4536°E / 37.0659; 22.4536). Built around the early 8th century BC, the Spartans believed it had been the former residence of Menelaus. In 1970, the British School in Athens started excavations around the Menelaion in an attempt to locate Mycenaean remains in the area. Among other findings, they uncovered the remains of two Mycenaean mansions and found the first offerings dedicated to Helen and Menelaus. These mansions were destroyed by earthquake and fire, and archaeologists consider them the possible palace of Menelaus himself.[31][better source needed]

Excavations made from the early 1990s to the present suggest that the area around the Menelaion in the southern part of the Eurotas valley seems to have been the center of Mycenaean Laconia.[32] The Mycenaean settlement was roughly triangular in shape, with its apex pointed towards the north. Its area was approximately equal to that of the "newer" Sparta, but denudation has wreaked havoc with its buildings and nothing is left of its original structures save for ruined foundations and broken potsherds.[28]

History

Main article: History of Sparta

Prehistory, "dark age" and archaic period

The prehistory of Sparta is difficult to reconstruct because the literary evidence was written far later than the events it describes and is distorted by oral tradition.[33] The earliest certain evidence of human settlement in the region of Sparta consists of pottery dating from the Middle Neolithic period, found in the vicinity of Kouphovouno some two kilometres (1.2 miles) south-southwest of Sparta.[34]

This civilization seems to have fallen into decline by the late Bronze Age, when, according to Herodotus, Macedonian tribes from the north (called Dorians by those they conquered) marched into the Peloponnese and, subjugating the local tribes, settled there.[33] The Dorians seem to have set about expanding the frontiers of Spartan territory almost before they had established their own state.[35] They fought against the Argive Dorians to the east and southeast, and also the Arcadian Achaeans to the northwest. The evidence suggests that Sparta, relatively inaccessible because of the topography of the Taygetan plain, was secure from early on: it was never fortified.[35]

Lycurgus

Nothing distinctive in the archaeology of the Eurotas River Valley identifies the Dorians or the Dorian Spartan state. The prehistory of the Neolithic, the Bronze Age and the Dark Age (the Early Iron Age) at this moment must be treated apart from the stream of Dorian Spartan history.[citation needed]

The legendary period of Spartan history is believed to fall into the Dark Age. It treats the mythic heroes such as the Heraclids and the Perseids, offering a view of the occupation of the Peloponnesus that contains both fantastic and possibly historical elements. The subsequent proto-historic period, combining both legend and historical fragments, offers the first credible history.

Between the 8th and 7th centuries BC the Spartans experienced a period of lawlessness and civil strife, later attested by both Herodotus and Thucydides.[36] As a result, they carried out a series of political and social reforms of their own society which they later attributed to a semi-mythical lawgiver, Lycurgus.[37] Several writers throughout antiquity, including Herodotus, Xenophon, and Plutarch have attempted to explain Spartan exceptionalism as a result of the so-called Lycurgan Reforms.Xenophon, Constitution of the Lacedaimonians, chapter 1[38][39][40]

Classical Sparta

In the Second Messenian War, Sparta established itself as a local power in the Peloponnesus and the rest of Greece. During the following centuries, Sparta's reputation as a land-fighting force was unequalled.[41] At its peak around 500 BC, Sparta had some 20,000–35,000 citizens, plus numerous helots and perioikoi. The likely total of 40,000–50,000 made Sparta one of the larger Greek city-states;[42][43] however, according to Thucydides, the population of Athens in 431 BC was 360,000–610,000, making it much larger.[n 2]

In 480 BC, a small force led by King Leonidas (about 300 full Spartiates, 700 Thespians, and 400 Thebans, although these numbers were lessened by earlier casualties[45]) made a legendary last stand at the Battle of Thermopylae against the massive Persian army, led by Xerxes.[46] The Spartans received advance warning of the Persian invasion from their deposed king Demaratus, which prompted them to consult the Delphic oracle. According to Herodotus, the Pythia proclaimed that either one of the kings of Sparta had to die or Sparta would be destroyed.[47] This prophecy was fulfilled after king Leonidas died in the battle. The superior weaponry, strategy, and bronze armour of the Greek hoplites and their phalanx fighting formation again proved their worth one year later when Sparta assembled its full strength and led a Greek alliance against the Persians at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC.

Ancient Sparta.

The decisive Greek victory at Plataea put an end to the Greco-Persian War along with Persian ambitions to expand into Europe. Even though this war was won by a pan-Greek army, credit was given to Sparta, who besides providing the leading forces at Thermopylae and Plataea, had been the de facto leader of the entire Greek expedition.[48]

In 464 BC, a violent earthquake occurred along the Sparta faultline destroying much of what was Sparta and many other city-states in ancient Greece. This earthquake is marked by scholars as one of the key events that led to the First Peloponnesian War.

In later Classical times, Sparta along with Athens, Thebes, and Persia were the main powers fighting for supremacy in the northeastern Mediterranean. In the course of the Peloponnesian War, Sparta, a traditional land power, acquired a navy which managed to overpower the previously dominant flotilla of Athens, ending the Athenian Empire. At the peak of its power in the early 4th century BC, Sparta had subdued many of the main Greek states and even invaded the Persian provinces in Anatolia (modern day Turkey), a period known as the Spartan hegemony.

During the Corinthian War, Sparta faced a coalition of the leading Greek states: Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos. The alliance was initially backed by Persia, which feared further Spartan expansion into Asia.[49] Sparta achieved a series of land victories, but many of her ships were destroyed at the Battle of Cnidus by a Greek-Phoenician mercenary fleet that Persia had provided to Athens. The event severely damaged Sparta's naval power but did not end its aspirations of invading further into Persia, until Conon the Athenian ravaged the Spartan coastline and provoked the old Spartan fear of a helot revolt.[50]

After a few more years of fighting, in 387 BC the Peace of Antalcidas was established, according to which all Greek cities of Ionia would return to Persian control, and Persia's Asian border would be free of the Spartan threat.[50] The effects of the war were to reaffirm Persia's ability to interfere successfully in Greek politics and to affirm Sparta's weakened hegemonic position in the Greek political system.[51] Sparta entered its long-term decline after a severe military defeat to Epaminondas of Thebes at the Battle of Leuctra. This was the first time that a full strength Spartan army lost a land battle.

As Spartan citizenship was inherited by blood, Sparta increasingly faced a helot population that vastly outnumbered its citizens. The alarming decline of Spartan citizens was commented on by Aristotle.

Hellenistic and Roman Sparta

Medieval depiction of Sparta from the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493)

Sparta never fully recovered from its losses at Leuctra in 371 BC and the subsequent helot revolts. In 338, Philip II invaded and devastated much of Laconia, turning the Spartans out, though he did not seize Sparta itself.[52] Even during its decline, Sparta never forgot its claim to be the "defender of Hellenism" and its Laconic wit. An anecdote has it that when Philip II sent a message to Sparta saying "If I invade Laconia, I shall turn you out."[53], the Spartans responded with the single, terse reply: αἴκα, "if".[54][55][56] When Philip created the League of Corinth on the pretext of unifying Greece against Persia, the Spartans chose not to join, since they had no interest in joining a pan-Greek expedition unless it were under Spartan leadership. Thus, upon defeating the Persians at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander the Great sent to Athens 300 suits of Persian armour with the following inscription: "Alexander, son of Philip, and all the Greeks except the Spartans, give these offerings taken from the foreigners who live in Asia".

Sparta continued to be one of the Peloponesian powers until its eventual loss of independence in 192 BC. During Alexander's campaigns in the east, the Spartan king Agis III sent a force to Crete in 333 BC to secure the island for the Persian interest.[57][58] Agis next took command of allied Greek forces against Macedon, gaining early successes, before laying siege to Megalopolis in 331 BC. A large Macedonian army under general Antipater marched to its relief and defeated the Spartan-led force in a pitched battle.[59] More than 5,300 of the Spartans and their allies were killed in battle, and 3,500 of Antipater's troops.[60] Agis, now wounded and unable to stand, ordered his men to leave him behind to face the advancing Macedonian army so that he could buy them time to retreat. On his knees, the Spartan king slew several enemy soldiers before being finally killed by a javelin.[61] Alexander was merciful, and he only forced the Spartans to join the League of Corinth, which they had previously refused.[62]

During the Punic Wars, Sparta was an ally of the Roman Republic. Spartan political independence was put to an end when it was eventually forced into the Achaean League after its defeat in the decisive Laconian War by a coalition of other Greek city-states and Rome, and the resultant overthrow of its final king Nabis, in 192 BC. Sparta played no active part in the Achaean War in 146 BC when the Achaean League was defeated by the Roman general Lucius Mummius. Subsequently, Sparta became a free city under Roman rule, some of the institutions of Lycurgus were restored,[63] and the city became a tourist attraction for the Roman elite who came to observe exotic Spartan customs.[n 3]

In 214 AD, Roman emperor Caracalla, in his preparation for his campaign against Parthia, recruited a 500-man Spartan cohort (lokhos). Herodian described this unit as a phalanx, implying it fought like the old Spartans as hoplites, or even as a Macedonian phalanx. Despite this, a gravestone of a fallen legionary named Marcus Aurelius Alexys shows him lightly armed, with a pilos-like cap and a wooden club. The unit was presumably discharged in 217 after Caracalla was assassinated.[68]

An exchange of letters in the deutero-canonical First Book of Maccabees expresses a Jewish claim to kinship with the Spartans:

Areus king of the Lacedemonians to Onias the high priest, greeting: It is found in writing, that the Lacedemonians and Jews are brethren, and that they are of the stock of Abraham: Now therefore, since this is come to our knowledge, ye shall do well to write unto us of your prosperity. We do write back again to you, that your cattle and goods are ours, and ours are yours.— Authorized King James Version 1 Maccabees 12.20

The letters are reproduced in a variant form by Josephus.[69] Jewish historian Uriel Rappaport notes that the relationship between the Jews and the Spartans expressed in this correspondence has "intrigued many scholars, and various explanations have been suggested for the problems raised ... including the historicity of the Jewish leader and high priest Jonathan's letter to the Spartans, the authenticity of the letter of Arius to Onias, cited in Jonathan's letter, and the supposed 'brotherhood' of the Jews and the Spartans." Rappaport is clear that "the authenticity of [the reply] letter of Arius is based on even less firm foundations than the letter of Jonathan".[70]

Spartans long spurned the idea of building a defensive wall around their city, believing they made the city's men soft in terms of their warrior abilities. A wall was finally erected after 184 BCE, after the peak of the city-state's power had come and gone.[71]

Postclassical and modern Sparta

In 396 AD, Sparta was sacked by Visigoths under Alaric I.[72][73]

According to Byzantine sources, some parts of the Laconian region remained pagan until well into the 10th century. The Tsakonian language still spoken in Tsakonia is the only surviving descendant of the ancient Doric language. [74] In the Middle Ages, the political and cultural center of Laconia shifted to the nearby settlement of Mystras, and Sparta fell further in even local importance. Modern Sparta was re-founded in 1834, by a decree of King Otto of Greece.

Structure of Classical Spartan society

Constitution

Main article: Spartan Constitution

Structure of the Spartan Constitution

Sparta was an oligarchy. The state was ruled by two hereditary kings of the Agiad and Eurypontid families,[75] both supposedly descendants of Heracles and equal in authority, so that one could not act against the power and political enactments of his colleague.[28]

The duties of the kings were primarily religious, judicial, and military. As chief priests of the state, they maintained communication with the Delphian sanctuary, whose pronouncements exercised great authority in Spartan politics. In the time of Herodotus c. 450 BC, their judicial functions had been restricted to cases dealing with heiresses (epikleroi), adoptions and the public roads (the meaning of the last term is unclear in Herodotus' text and has been interpreted in a number of ways). Aristotle describes the kingship at Sparta as "a kind of unlimited and perpetual generalship" (Pol. iii. 1285a), while Isocrates refers to the Spartans as "subject to an oligarchy at home, to a kingship on campaign" (iii. 24).[28]

Civil and criminal cases were decided by a group of officials known as the ephors, as well as a council of elders known as the Gerousia. The Gerousia consisted of 28 elders over the age of 60, elected for life and usually part of the royal households, and the two kings.[76] High state decisions were discussed by this council, who could then propose policies to the damos, the collective body of Spartan citizenry, who would select one of the alternatives by vote.[77][78]

Royal prerogatives were curtailed over time. From the period of the Persian wars, the king lost the right to declare war and was accompanied in the field by two ephors. He was supplanted by the ephors also in the control of foreign policy. Over time, the kings became mere figureheads except in their capacity as generals. Political power was transferred to the ephors and Gerousia.[28]

An assembly of citizens called the Ekklesia was responsible for electing men to the Gerousia for life.

Citizenship

Main article: Spartiate

The Spartan education process known as the agoge was essential for full citizenship. However, usually the only boys eligible for the agoge were Spartiates, those who could trace their ancestry to the original inhabitants of the city.

There were two exceptions. trophimoi or "foster sons" were foreign students invited to study. The Athenian general Xenophon, for example, sent his two sons to Sparta as trophimoi. Also, the son of a helot could be enrolled as a syntrophos[79] if a Spartiate formally adopted him and paid his way; if he did exceptionally well in training, he might be sponsored to become a Spartiate.[80] Spartans who could not afford to pay the expenses of the agoge could lose their citizenship.

These laws meant that Sparta could not readily replace citizens lost in battle or otherwise, which eventually proved near fatal as citizens became greatly outnumbered by non-citizens, and even more dangerously by helots.

Non citizens

The other classes were the perioikoi, free inhabitants who were non-citizens, and the helots,[81] state-owned serfs. Descendants of non-Spartan citizens were forbidden the agoge.

Helots

Main article: Helots

The Spartans were a minority of the Lakonian population. The largest class of inhabitants were the helots (in Classical Greek Εἵλωτες / Heílôtes).[82][83]

The helots were originally free Greeks from the areas of Messenia and Lakonia whom the Spartans had defeated in battle and subsequently enslaved.[84] In contrast to populations conquered by other Greek cities (e.g. the Athenian treatment of Melos), the male population was not exterminated and the women and children turned into chattel slaves. Instead, the helots were given a subordinate position in society more comparable to serfs in medieval Europe than chattel slaves in the rest of Greece.[citation needed] The Spartan helots were not only agricultural workers, but were also household servants, both male and female would be assigned domestic duties, such as wool-working.[85] However, the helots were not the private property of individual Spartan citizens, regardless of their household duties, and were instead owned by the state through the kleros system.[86]

Helots did not have voting or political rights. The Spartan poet Tyrtaios refers to Helots being allowed to marry and retaining 50% of the fruits of their labor.[87] They also seem to have been allowed to practice religious rites and, according to Thucydides, own a limited amount of personal property.[88]

Initially, helots couldn't be freed but during the middle Hellenistic period, some 6,000 helots accumulated enough wealth to buy their freedom, for example, in 227 BC.

In other Greek city-states, free citizens were part-time soldiers who, when not at war, carried on other trades. Since Spartan men were full-time soldiers, they were not available to carry out manual labour.[89] The helots were used as unskilled serfs, tilling Spartan land. Helot women were often used as wet nurses. Helots also travelled with the Spartan army as non-combatant serfs. At the last stand of the Battle of Thermopylae, the Greek dead included not just the legendary three hundred Spartan soldiers but also several hundred Thespian and Theban troops and a number of helots.[90]

There was at least one helot revolt (c. 465–460 BC) that led to prolonged conflict. By the tenth year of this war the Spartans and Messenians had reached an agreement in which Messenian rebels were allowed to leave the Peloponnese.[91] They were given safe passage under the terms that they would be re-enslaved if they tried to return. This agreement ended the most serious incursion into Spartan territory since their expansion in the seventh and eighth centuries BC.[92] Thucydides remarked that "Spartan policy is always mainly governed by the necessity of taking precautions against the helots."[93][94] On the other hand, the Spartans trusted their helots enough in 479 BC to take a force of 35,000 with them to Plataea, something they could not have risked if they feared the helots would attack them or run away. Slave revolts occurred elsewhere in the Greek world, and in 413 BC 20,000 Athenian slaves ran away to join the Spartan forces occupying Attica.[95] What made Sparta's relations with her slave population unique was that the helots, precisely because they enjoyed privileges such as family and property, retained their identity as a conquered people (the Messenians) and also had effective kinship groups that could be used to organize rebellion.[citation needed]

As the Spartiate population declined and the helot population continued to grow, the imbalance of power caused increasing tension. According to Myron of Priene[96] of the middle 3rd century BC:

They assign to the Helots every shameful task leading to disgrace. For they ordained that each one of them must wear a dogskin cap (κυνῆ / kunễ) and wrap himself in skins (διφθέρα / diphthéra) and receive a stipulated number of beatings every year regardless of any wrongdoing, so that they would never forget they were slaves. Moreover, if any exceeded the vigour proper to a slave's condition, they made death the penalty; and they allotted a punishment to those controlling them if they failed to rebuke those who were growing fat.[97]

Plutarch also states that Spartans treated the helots "harshly and cruelly": they compelled them to drink pure wine (which was considered dangerous – wine usually being cut with water) "...and to lead them in that condition into their public halls, that the children might see what a sight a drunken man is; they made them to dance low dances, and sing ridiculous songs..." during syssitia (obligatory banquets).[98]

Each year when the Ephors took office, they ritually declared war on the helots, allowing Spartans to kill them without risk of ritual pollution.[99] This fight seems to have been carried out by kryptai (sing. κρύπτης kryptēs), graduates of the agoge who took part in the mysterious institution known as the Krypteia.[100] Thucydides states:

The helots were invited by a proclamation to pick out those of their number who claimed to have most distinguished themselves against the enemy, in order that they might receive their freedom; the object being to test them, as it was thought that the first to claim their freedom would be the most high spirited and the most apt to rebel. As many as two thousand were selected accordingly, who crowned themselves and went round the temples, rejoicing in their new freedom. The Spartans, however, soon afterwards did away with them, and no one ever knew how each of them perished.[101][102]

Perioikoi

Main article: Perioeci

The Perioikoi came from similar origins as the helots but occupied a significantly different position in Spartan society. Although they did not enjoy full citizen-rights, they were free and not subjected to the same restrictions as the helots. The exact nature of their subjection to the Spartans is not clear, but they seem to have served partly as a kind of military reserve, partly as skilled craftsmen and partly as agents of foreign trade.[103] Perioikoic hoplites served increasingly with the Spartan army, explicitly at the Battle of Plataea, and although they may also have fulfilled functions such as the manufacture and repair of armour and weapons,[104] they were increasingly integrated into the combat units of the Spartan army as the Spartiate population declined.[105]

Economy

Name vase of the Spartan artist known as the Rider Painter (Laconian black-figured kylix, c. 550–530 BC)

Full citizen Spartiates were barred by law from trade or manufacture, which consequently rested in the hands of the Perioikoi.[28] This lucrative monopoly, in a fertile territory with a good harbors, ensured the loyalty of the perioikoi.[106] Despite the prohibition on menial labor or trade, there is evidence of Spartan sculptors,[107] and Spartans were certainly poets, magistrates, ambassadors, and governors as well as soldiers.

Allegedly, Spartans were prohibited from possessing gold and silver coins, and according to legend Spartan currency consisted of iron bars to discourage hoarding.[108][109] It was not until the 260s or 250s BC that Sparta began to mint its own coins.[110] Though the conspicuous display of wealth appears to have been discouraged, this did not preclude the production of very fine decorated bronze, ivory and wooden works of art as well as exquisite jewellery, attested in archaeology.[111]

Allegedly as part of the Lycurgan Reforms in the mid-8th century BC, a massive land reform had divided property into 9,000 equal portions. Each citizen received one estate, a kleros, which was expected to provide his living.[112] The land was worked by helots who retained half the yield. From the other half, the Spartiate was expected to pay his mess (syssitia) fees, and the agoge fees for his children. However, nothing is known of matters of wealth such as how land was bought, sold, and inherited, or whether daughters received dowries.[113] However, from early on there were marked differences of wealth within the state, and these became more serious after the law of Epitadeus some time after the Peloponnesian War, which removed the legal prohibition on the gift or bequest of land.[28][114] By the mid-5th century, land had become concentrated in the hands of a tiny elite, and the notion that all Spartan citizens were equals had become an empty pretence. By Aristotle's day (384–322 BC) citizenship had been reduced from 9,000 to less than 1,000, then further decreased to 700 at the accession of Agis IV in 244 BC. Attempts were made to remedy this by imposing legal penalties upon bachelors,[28] but this could not reverse the trend.

Life in Classical Sparta

Jean-Pierre Saint-Ours, The Selection of Children in Sparta, 1785. A Neoclassical imaging of what Plutarch describes.

Birth and death

Sparta was above all a militarist state, and emphasis on military fitness began virtually at birth. According to Plutarch after birth, a mother would bathe her child in wine to see whether the child was strong. If the child survived it was brought before the Gerousia by the child's father. The Gerousia then decided whether it was to be reared or not.[28] It is commonly stated that if they considered it "puny and deformed", the baby was thrown into a chasm on Mount Taygetos known euphemistically as the Apothetae (Gr., ἀποθέται, "Deposits").[115][116] This was, in effect, a primitive form of eugenics.[115] Plutarch is the sole historical source for the Spartan practice of systemic infanticide motivated by eugenics.[117] Sparta is often viewed as being unique in this regard, however, anthropologist Laila Williamson notes: "Infanticide has been practiced on every continent and by people on every level of cultural complexity, from hunter gatherers to high civilizations. Rather than being an exception, then, it has been the rule."[118] There is controversy about the matter in Sparta, since excavations in the chasm only uncovered adult remains, likely belonging to criminals[119] and Greek sources contemporary to Sparta does not mention systemic infanticide motivated solely by eugenics.[120]

Spartan burial customs changed over time. The Archaic Spartan poet Tyrtaeus spoke of the Spartan war-dead as follows:

Never do his [the war-dead's] name and good fame perish,

But even though he is beneath the earth he is immortal,

Young and old alike mourn him,

All the city is distressed by the painful loss,

and his tomb and children are pointed out among the people,

and his children’s children and his line after them.

[121]

When Spartans died, marked headstones would only be granted to soldiers who died in combat during a victorious campaign or women who died either in service of a divine office or in childbirth.[122] These headstones likely acted as memorials, rather than as grave markers. Evidence of Spartan burials is provided by the Tomb of the Lacedaimonians in Athens.[citation needed] Excavations at the cemetery of classical Sparta, uncovered ritually pierced kantharoid-like ceramic vessels, the ritual slaughter of horses, and specific burial enclosures alongside individual 'plots'. Some of the graves were reused over time.[123][124]

In the Hellenistic Period, grander, two-storey monumental tombs are found at Sparta. Ten of these have been found for this period.[124]

Education

Main article: Agoge

Bronze appliqué of Spartan manufacture, possibly depicting Orestes, 550–525 BC (Getty Villa)

When male Spartans began military training at age seven, they would enter the agoge system. The agoge was designed to encourage discipline and physical toughness and to emphasize the importance of the Spartan state. Boys lived in communal messes and, according to Xenophon, whose sons attended the agoge, the boys were fed "just the right amount for them never to become sluggish through being too full, while also giving them a taste of what it is not to have enough."[125] In addition, they were trained to survive in times of privation, even if it meant stealing.[126] Besides physical and weapons training, boys studied reading, writing, music and dancing. Special punishments were imposed if boys failed to answer questions sufficiently "laconically" (i.e. briefly and wittily).[127]

Spartan boys were expected to take an older male mentor, usually an unmarried young man. According to some sources, the older man was expected to function as a kind of substitute father and role model to his junior partner; however, others believe it was reasonably certain that they had sexual relations (the exact nature of Spartan pederasty is not entirely clear). Xenophon, an admirer of the Spartan educational system whose sons attended the agoge, explicitly denies the sexual nature of the relationship.[128][125]

Some Spartan youth apparently became members of an irregular unit known as the Krypteia. The immediate objective of this unit was to seek out and kill vulnerable helot Laconians as part of the larger program of terrorising and intimidating the helot population.[129]

Less information is available about the education of Spartan girls, but they seem to have gone through a fairly extensive formal educational cycle, broadly similar to that of the boys but with less emphasis on military training. Spartan girls received an education known as mousikē. This included music, dancing, singing and poetry. Choral dancing was taught so Spartan girls could participate in ritual activities, including the cults of Helen and Artemis.[130] In this respect, classical Sparta was unique in ancient Greece. In no other city-state did women receive any kind of formal education.[131]

Military life

Main articles: Spartan army and Spartiate

The so-called Leonidas sculpture (5th century BC), Archaeological Museum of Sparta, Greece

At age 20, the Spartan citizen began his membership in one of the syssitia (dining messes or clubs), composed of about fifteen members each, of which every citizen was required to be a member.[28] Here each group learned how to bond and rely on one another. The Spartans were not eligible for election for public office until the age of 30. Only native Spartans were considered full citizens and were obliged to undergo the training as prescribed by law, as well as participate in and contribute financially to one of the syssitia.[132]

Sparta is thought to be the first city to practice athletic nudity, and some scholars claim that it was also the first to formalize pederasty.[133] According to these sources, the Spartans believed that the love of an older, accomplished aristocrat for an adolescent was essential to his formation as a free citizen. The agoge, the education of the ruling class, was, they claim, founded on pederastic relationships required of each citizen,[134] with the lover responsible for the boy's training.

However, other scholars question this interpretation. Xenophon explicitly denies it,[125] but not Plutarch.[135]

Spartan men remained in the active reserve until age 60. Men were encouraged to marry at age 20 but could not live with their families until they left their active military service at age 30. They called themselves "homoioi" (equals), pointing to their common lifestyle and the discipline of the phalanx, which demanded that no soldier be superior to his comrades.[136] Insofar as hoplite warfare could be perfected, the Spartans did so.[137]

Thucydides reports that when a Spartan man went to war, his wife (or another woman of some significance) would customarily present him with his shield (shield) and say: "With this, or upon this" (Ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς, Èi tàn èi èpì tàs), meaning that true Spartans could only return to Sparta either victorious (with their shield in hand) or dead (carried upon it).[138] This is almost certainly propaganda. Spartans buried their battle dead on or near the battle field; corpses were not brought back on their shield.[139] Nevertheless, it is fair to say that it was less of a disgrace for a soldier to lose his helmet, breastplate or greaves than his shield, since the former were designed to protect one man, whereas the shield also protected the man on his left. Thus, the shield was symbolic of the individual soldier's subordination to his unit, his integral part in its success, and his solemn responsibility to his comrades in arms – messmates and friends, often close blood relations.

According to Aristotle, the Spartan military culture was actually short-sighted and ineffective. He observed:

It is the standards of civilized men not of beasts that must be kept in mind, for it is good men not beasts who are capable of real courage. Those like the Spartans who concentrate on the one and ignore the other in their education turn men into machines and in devoting themselves to one single aspect of city's life, end up making them inferior even in that.[140]

One of the most persistent myths about Sparta that has no basis in fact is the notion that Spartan mothers were without feelings toward their off-spring and helped enforce a militaristic lifestyle on their sons and husbands.[141][142] The myth can be traced back to Plutarch, who includes no less than 17 "sayings" of "Spartan women", all of which paraphrase or elaborate on the theme that Spartan mothers rejected their own offspring if they showed any kind of cowardice. In some of these sayings, mothers revile their sons in insulting language merely for surviving a battle. These sayings purporting to be from Spartan women were far more likely to be of Athenian origin and designed to portray Spartan women as unnatural and so undeserving of pity.[139]

Agriculture, food, and diet

Sparta's agriculture consisted mainly of barley, wine, cheese, grain, and figs. These items were grown locally on each Spartan citizen's kleros and were tended to by helots. Spartan citizens were required to donate a certain amount of what they yielded from their kleros to their syssitia, or mess. These donations to the syssitia were a requirement for every Spartan citizen. All the donated food was then redistributed to feed the Spartan population of that syssitia.[143] The helots who tended to the lands were fed using a portion of what they harvested.[144]

Marriage

Plutarch reports the peculiar customs associated with the Spartan wedding night:

The custom was to capture women for marriage... The so-called 'bridesmaid' took charge of the captured girl. She first shaved her head to the scalp, then dressed her in a man's cloak and sandals, and laid her down alone on a mattress in the dark. The bridegroom – who was not drunk and thus not impotent, but was sober as always – first had dinner in the messes, then would slip in, undo her belt, lift her and carry her to the bed.[145]

The husband continued to visit his wife in secret for some time after the marriage. These customs, unique to the Spartans, have been interpreted in various ways. One of them decidedly supports the need to disguise the bride as a man in order to help the bridegroom consummate the marriage, so unaccustomed were men to women's looks at the time of their first intercourse. The "abduction" may have served to ward off the evil eye, and the cutting of the wife's hair was perhaps part of a rite of passage that signaled her entrance into a new life.[146]

Role of women

Main article: Women in ancient Sparta

Political, social, and economic equality

Spartan women, of the citizenry class, enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. The higher status of females in Spartan society started at birth; unlike Athens, Spartan girls were fed the same food as their brothers.[147] Nor were they confined to their father's house and prevented from exercising or getting fresh air as in Athens, but exercised and even competed in sports.[147] Most important, rather than being married off at the age of 12 or 13, Spartan law forbade the marriage of a girl until she was in her late teens or early 20s. The reasons for delaying marriage were to ensure the birth of healthy children, but the effect was to spare Spartan women the hazards and lasting health damage associated with pregnancy among adolescents. Spartan women, better fed from childhood and fit from exercise, stood a far better chance of reaching old age than their sisters in other Greek cities, where the median age for death was 34.6 years or roughly 10 years below that of men.[148]

Unlike Athenian women who wore heavy, concealing clothes and were rarely seen outside the house, Spartan women wore dresses (peplos) slit up the side to allow freer movement and moved freely about the city, either walking or driving chariots. Girls as well as boys exercised, possibly in the nude, and young women as well as young men may have participated in the Gymnopaedia ("Festival of Nude Youths").[149][150]

Another practice that was mentioned by many visitors to Sparta was the practice of "wife-sharing". In accordance with the Spartan belief that breeding should be between the most physically fit parents, many older men allowed younger, more fit men, to impregnate their wives. Other unmarried or childless men might even request another man's wife to bear his children if she had previously been a strong child bearer.[151] For this reason many considered Spartan women polygamous or polyandrous.[152] This practice was encouraged in order that women bear as many strong-bodied children as they could. The Spartan population was hard to maintain due to the constant absence and loss of the men in battle and the intense physical inspection of newborns.[153]

Spartan women were also literate and numerate, a rarity in the ancient world. Furthermore, as a result of their education and the fact that they moved freely in society engaging with their fellow (male) citizens, they were notorious for speaking their minds even in public.[154] Plato, in the middle of the fourth century, described women's curriculum in Sparta as consisting of gymnastics and mousike (music and arts). Plato praised Spartan women's ability when it came to philosophical discussion.[155]

Most importantly, Spartan women had economic power because they controlled their own properties, and those of their husbands. It is estimated that in later Classical Sparta, when the male population was in serious decline, women were the sole owners of at least 35% of all land and property in Sparta.[156] The laws regarding a divorce were the same for both men and women. Unlike women in Athens, if a Spartan woman became the heiress of her father because she had no living brothers to inherit (an epikleros), the woman was not required to divorce her current spouse in order to marry her nearest paternal relative.[156]

Historic women

Many women played a significant role in the history of Sparta.[157] Queen Gorgo, heiress to the throne and the wife of Leonidas I, was an influential and well-documented figure. Herodotus records that as a small girl she advised her father Cleomenes to resist a bribe. She was later said to be responsible for decoding a warning that the Persian forces were about to invade Greece; after Spartan generals could not decode a wooden tablet covered in wax, she ordered them to clear the wax, revealing the warning.[158] Plutarch's Moralia contains a collection of "Sayings of Spartan Women", including a laconic quip attributed to Gorgo: when asked by a woman from Attica why Spartan women were the only women in the world who could rule men, she replied "Because we are the only women who are mothers of men".[159] In 396, Cynisca, sister of the Eurypontid king Agesilaos II, became the first woman in Greece to win an Olympic chariot race. She won again in 392, and dedicated two monuments to commemorate her victory, these being an inscription in Sparta and a set of bronze equestrian statues at the Olympic temple of Zeus.[160][161]

Laconophilia

Main article: Laconophilia

Laconophilia is love or admiration of Sparta and its culture or constitution. Sparta was subject of considerable admiration in its day, even in rival Athens. In ancient times "Many of the noblest and best of the Athenians always considered the Spartan state nearly as an ideal theory realised in practice."[162] Many Greek philosophers, especially Platonists, would often describe Sparta as an ideal state, strong, brave, and free from the corruptions of commerce and money. The French classicist François Ollier in his 1933 book Le mirage spartiate (The Spartan Mirage) warned that a major scholarly problem is that all surviving accounts of Sparta were by non-Spartans who often excessively idealized their subject.[163] No accounts survive by the Spartans themselves, if such were ever written.

Young Spartans Exercising by Edgar Degas (1834–1917)

With the revival of classical learning in Renaissance Europe, Laconophilia re-appeared, for example in the writings of Machiavelli. The Elizabethan English constitutionalist John Aylmer compared the mixed government of Tudor England to the Spartan republic, stating that "Lacedemonia [was] the noblest and best city governed that ever was". He commended it as a model for England. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau contrasted Sparta favourably with Athens in his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, arguing that its austere constitution was preferable to the more sophisticated Athenian life. Sparta was also used as a model of austere purity by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France.[164]

A German racist strain of Laconophilia was initiated by Karl Otfried Müller, who linked Spartan ideals to the supposed racial superiority of the Dorians, the ethnic sub-group of the Greeks to which the Spartans belonged. In the 20th century, this developed into Fascist admiration of Spartan ideals. Adolf Hitler praised the Spartans, recommending in 1928 that Germany should imitate them by limiting "the number allowed to live". He added that "The Spartans were once capable of such a wise measure... The subjugation of 350,000 Helots by 6,000 Spartans was only possible because of the racial superiority of the Spartans." The Spartans had created "the first racialist state".[165] Following the invasion of the USSR, Hitler viewed citizens of the USSR as like the helots under the Spartans: "They [the Spartans] came as conquerors, and they took everything", and so should the Germans. A Nazi officer specified that "the Germans would have to assume the position of the Spartiates, while... the Russians were the Helots."[165]

Certain early Zionists, and particularly the founders of Kibbutz movement in Israel, were influenced by Spartan ideals, particularly in education. Tabenkin, a founding father of the Kibbutz movement and the Palmach strikeforce, prescribed that education for warfare "should begin from the nursery", that children should from kindergarten be taken to "spend nights in the mountains and valleys".[166][167]

In modern times, the adjective "Spartan" means simple, frugal, avoiding luxury and comfort.[168] The term "laconic phrase" describes the very terse and direct speech characteristic of the Spartans.

Sparta also features prominently in modern popular culture, most famously the Battle of Thermopylae (see Battle of Thermopylae in popular culture).

Notable ancient Spartans

Agesilaus II – king

Agis I – king

Agis II – king

Chilon – philosopher

Chionis (7th century BC) – athlete

Clearchus of Sparta – mercenary in the army of the Ten Thousand.

Cleomenes I – king

Cleomenes III – king and reformer

Cynisca (4th century BC) – princess and athlete

Gorgo – queen and politician

Helen – princess in the Trojan War

Leonidas I (c. 520–480 BC) – king, commander at the Battle of Thermopylae

Lycurgus (10th century BC) – lawgiver

Lysander (5th–4th century BC) – general

Menelaus – king during the Trojan War

Nabis – king

Xanthippus of Carthage – Spartan mercenary in the First Punic War

Sparta: Definition, Greece & Peloponnesian War | HISTORY

ta: Definition, Greece & Peloponnesian War | HISTORYShowsThis Day In HistoryScheduleTopicsStoriesHistory ClassicsLive TVYour ProfileYour ProfileHistoryFind History on Facebook (Opens in a new window)Find History on Twitter (Opens in a new window)Find History on YouTube (Opens in a new window)Find History on Instagram (Opens in a new window)Find History on TikTok (Opens in a new window)Email UpdatesLive TVHistory ClassicsShowsThis Day In HistoryScheduleTopicsStoriesVideosHistory PodcastsHistory VaultShopHomeTopicsAncient GreeceSpartaSpartaBy: History.com EditorsUpdated: July 21, 2022 | Original: November 12, 2009copy page linkPrint PageiStock / Getty Images PlusTable of ContentsSparta LifeThe Spartan Military Spartan Armor, Shield and HelmetSpartan Women Decline of the Spartans Sparta was a warrior society in ancient Greece that reached the height of its power after defeating rival city-state Athens in the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.). Spartan culture was centered on loyalty to the state and military service. Spartan boys entered a rigorous state-sponsored education, military training and socialization program. Known as the Agoge, the system emphasized duty, discipline and endurance. Although Spartan women were not active in the military, they were educated and enjoyed more status and freedom than other Greek women.Peloponnesian WarSparta LifeSparta, also known as Lacedaemon, was an ancient Greek city-state located primarily in a region of southern Greece called Laconia. The population of Sparta consisted of three main groups: the Spartans, or Spartiates, who were full citizens; the Helots, or serfs/slaves; and the Perioeci, who were neither slaves nor citizens. The Perioeci, whose name means “dwellers-around,” worked as craftsmen and traders, and made weapons for the Spartans.Did you know? The word “spartan” means self-restrained, simple, frugal and austere. The word laconic, which means pithy and concise, is derived from the Spartans, who prized brevity of speech.All healthy male Spartan citizens participated in the compulsory state-sponsored education system, the Agoge, which emphasized obedience, endurance, courage and self-control. Spartan men devoted their lives to military service, and lived communally well into adulthood. A Spartan was taught that loyalty to the state came before everything else, including one’s family.The Helots, whose name means “captives,” were fellow Greeks, originally from Laconia and Messenia, who had been conquered by the Spartans and turned into slaves. The Spartans’ way of life would not have been possible without the Helots, who handled all the day-to-day tasks and unskilled labor required to keep society functioning: They were farmers, domestic servants, nurses and military attendants.Spartans, who were outnumbered by the Helots, often treated them brutally and oppressively in an effort to prevent uprisings. Spartans would humiliate the Helots by doing such things as forcing them to get debilitatingly drunk on wine and then make fools of themselves in public. (This practice was also intended to demonstrate to young people how an adult Spartan should never act, as self-control was a prized trait.) Methods of mistreatment could be far more extreme: Spartans were allowed to kill Helots for being too smart or too fit, among other reasons.The Spartan Military Unlike such Greek city-states as Athens — a center for the arts, learning and philosophy — Sparta was centered on a warrior culture. Male Spartan citizens were allowed only one occupation: soldier. Indoctrination into this lifestyle began early. Spartan boys started their military training at age 7, when they left home and entered the Agoge. The boys lived communally under austere conditions. They were subjected to continual physical, competitions (which could involve violence), given meager rations and expected to become skilled at stealing food, among other survival skills.The teenage boys who demonstrated the most leadership potential were selected for participation in the Crypteia, which acted as a secret police force whose primary goal was to terrorize the general Helot population and murder those who were troublemakers. At age 20, Spartan males became full-time soldiers, and remained on active duty until age 60.Spartan Armor, Shield and HelmetNo one soldier was considered superior to another. Going into battle, a Spartan soldier, or hoplite, wore a large bronze helmet, breastplate and ankle guards, and carried a round shield made of bronze and wood, a long spear and sword. Spartan warriors were also known for their long hair and red cloaks. The Spartans’ constant military drilling and discipline made them skilled at the ancient Greek style of fighting in a phalanx formation. In the phalanx, the army worked as a unit in a close, deep formation, and made coordinated mass maneuvers.Spartan Women Spartan women had a reputation for being independent-minded, and enjoyed more freedoms and power than their counterparts throughout ancient Greece. While they played no role in the military, female Spartans often received a formal education, although separate from boys and not at boarding schools. In part to attract mates, females engaged in athletic competitions, including javelin-throwing and wrestling, and also sang and danced competitively. As adults, Spartan women were allowed to own and manage property. Additionally, they were typically unencumbered by domestic responsibilities such as cooking, cleaning and making clothing, tasks which were handled by the Helots.Marriage was important to Spartans, as the state put pressure on people to have male children who would grow up to become citizen-warriors, and to replace those who died in battle. Men who delayed marriage were publicly shamed, while those who fathered multiple sons could be rewarded.In preparation for marriage, Spartan women had their heads shaved; they kept their hair short after they wed. Married couples typically lived apart, as men under 30 were required to continue residing in communal barracks. In order to see their wives during this time, husbands had to sneak away at night.Decline of the Spartans In 371 B.C., Sparta suffered a catastrophic defeat at the hands of the Thebans at the Battle of Leuctra. In a further blow, late the following year, Theban general Epaminondas (c.418 B.C.-362B.C.) led an invasion into Spartan territory and oversaw the liberation of the Messenian Helots, who had been enslaved by the Spartans for several centuries. The Spartans would continue to exist, although as a second-rate power in a long period of decline. In 1834, Otto (1815-67), the king of Greece, ordered the founding of the modern-day town of Sparti on the site of ancient Sparta.HISTORY Vault: Ancient HistoryFrom Egypt to Greece, explore fascinating documentaries about the ancient world. WATCH NOWBy: History.com EditorsHISTORY.com works with a wide range of writers and editors to create accurate and informative content. All articles are regularly reviewed and updated by the HISTORY.com team. Articles with the “HISTORY.com Editors” byline have been written or edited by the HISTORY.com editors, including Amanda Onion, Missy Sullivan, Matt Mullen and Christian Zapata.

Citation InformationArticle TitleSpartaAuthorHistory.com EditorsWebsite NameHISTORYURLhttps://www.history.com/topics/ancient-greece/spartaDate AccessedMarch 7, 2024PublisherA&E Television NetworksLast UpdatedJuly 21, 2022Original Published DateNovember 12, 2009Fact CheckWe strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.Print PageSign up for Inside HistoryGet HISTORY’s most fascinating stories delivered to your inbox three times a week.Sign UpBy submitting your information, you agree to receive emails from HISTORY and A+E Networks. You can opt out at any time. You must be 16 years or older and a resident of the United States.More details: Privacy Notice | Terms of Use | Contact UsA+E NetworksOur Family of BrandsHistory EducationHistory VaultMobile/AppsNewsShopShare Your OpinionFollow Historydepm+BiographyCrime and InvestigationHistory en EspanolLRWMilitary HistoryAd ChoicesAdvertise With UsAccessibility SupportCopyright PolicyCorporate InformationEmployment OpportunitiesFAQ/Contact UsPrivacy NoticeCookie NoticeTerms Of UseTV Parental GuidelinesContact UsCopyright PolicyPrivacy PolicyTerms of UseAd ChoicesAccessibility Support© 2024, A&E Television Networks, LLC. All Rights Reserv

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Sparta

Contents

Definition

by Mark Cartwright

published on 28 May 2013

Available in other languages: French, Italian, Spanish, Turkish

Spartan WarriorsThe Creative Assembly (Copyright)

Sparta was one of the most important city-states in ancient Greece and was famous for its military prowess. The professional and well-trained Spartan hoplites with their distinctive red cloaks and long hair were probably the best and most feared fighters in Greece, fighting with distinction at key battles against the Persian army at Thermopylae and Plataea in the 5th century BCE.

The city of Sparta was also in constant rivalry with the other major Greek cities of Athens and Corinth and became involved in two protracted and hugely damaging conflicts, the Peloponnesian Wars of the mid- to late-5th century BCE and the Corinthian Wars of in the early 4th century BCE.

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Sparta in Mythology

In Greek mythology the founder of the ancient city was Lacedaemon, a son of Zeus, who gave his name to the region and his wife's name to the city. Sparta was also an important member of the Greek force which participated in the Trojan War. Indeed, the Spartan king Menelaus instigated the war after the Trojan prince Paris abducted his wife Helen, offered to Paris by the goddess Aphrodite as a prize for choosing her in a beauty contest with fellow goddesses Athena and Hera. Helen was said to have been the most beautiful woman in Greece and Spartan women in general enjoyed a reputation not only for good looks but also spirited independence.

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Establishing Regional Dominance

Sparta was located in the fertile Eurotas valley of Laconia in the southeast Peloponnese. The area was first settled in the Neolithic period and an important settlement developed in the Bronze Age. Archaeological evidence, however, suggests that Sparta itself was a new settlement created from the 10th century BCE.

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In the late 8th century BCE, Sparta subjugated most of neighbouring Messenia and its population was made to serve Spartan interests. Sparta thus came to control some 8,500 km² of territory making the polis or city-state the largest in Greece and a major player in Greek politics. The conquered peoples of Messenia and Laconia, known as perioikoi, had no political rights in Sparta and were often made to serve with the Spartan army. A second and lower social group was the helots, semi-enslaved agricultural labourers who lived on Spartan-owned estates. Intermediary between the helots and the perioikoi were the liberated helots or neodamōdeis. Spartan citizens did not indulge in farming activities themselves but devoted their time to military training, hunting, war, and politics. The helots could keep a percentage of the produce they cultivated, but they were also regularly purged to keep them firmly in their social place and they could also be conscripted into military duties in times of war.

[Sparta was] everywhere admired and nowhere imitated. Xenophon

The relationship between citizens and helots was an uneasy one and there were sometimes uprisings, notably in the 7th century BCE which contributed to Sparta's defeat to Argos at Hysiae in 669 BCE. Sparta gained revenge on Argos in c. 545 BCE but then lost a battle with Tegea shortly after. This regional instability brought about the Peloponnesian League (c. 505 to 365 BCE) which was a grouping of Corinth, Elis, Tegea, and other states (but never Argos), where each member swore to have the same enemies and allies as Sparta. Membership of the League did not necessitate the paying of tribute to Sparta but rather the provision of troops. The League would allow Sparta to establish hegemony over and dominate the Peloponnese until the 4th century BCE. In addition to local politics, from the 6th century BCE Sparta began to broaden her horizons by, for example, creating an alliance with Croesus of Lydia and sending an expedition against Polycrates of Samos in c. 525 BCE.

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Rivalry with Athens, Thebes & Corinth

Sparta, under Cleomenes (c. 520-490 BCE), overthrew the tyrants of Athens but the resulting democracy put a stop to any Spartan ambitions in the city. Sparta was, however, an ally with Athens in the defence of Greece against the invasion of Persian king Xerxes, and fought with distinction at Thermopylae in 480 BCE and at Plataea one year later. From 480 to 460 BCE regional rivalries and revolts by the helots damaged Sparta and worse were to follow when rivalry with Athens developed into the Peloponnesian Wars from c. 460 to 446 BCE and again from 431 to 404 BCE. The long wars were damaging to both sides but Sparta, with some Persian help, finally won the conflict when Lysander destroyed the Athenian fleet at Aegospotami in 405 BCE. Sparta's position as the number one city-state in Greece, though, was to be short-lived.

Spartan TerritoryMarsyas (CC BY-SA)

Continued Spartan ambitions in central and northern Greece, Asia Minor, and Sicily once again dragged the city into another protracted conflict, the Corinthian Wars with Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Persia from 396 to 387 BCE. The result of the conflict was the 'King's Peace' where Sparta ceded her empire (for which she in any case lacked the necessary bureaucratic apparatus to manage properly) to Persian control but Sparta was left to dominate Greece. However, trying to crush Thebes, Sparta lost the crucial battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE against the brilliant Theban general Epaminondas. Thebes then annexed parts of Messenia and Sparta became thereafter only a second-rate power.

Spartan women could own property which they often gained through dowries & inheritances.

After briefly challenging Macedonian control in the 3rd century BCE and being besieged by Pyrrhus in 272 BCE, Sparta never regained her former glory and she was compelled to join the Achaean Confederacy in 195 BCE. Under Roman control Sparta was permitted to leave the confederacy in 147 BCE which prompted the Achaean War. However, as a free city in the Roman world things did improve for Sparta, and the city enjoyed good relations with her conquerors but the end finally came for Sparta in 396 CE when the Visigoth king Alaric sacked the city.

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Government

The Spartan political system was unusual in that it had two hereditary kings from two separate families. These monarchs were particularly powerful when one of them led the army on campaign. The kings were also priests of Zeus and they sat on the council of elders known as the gerousia. This body consisted of 28 over-60 years of age males who held the position for life. The gerousia led the citizen assembly, probably proposing issues on which to vote and it was also the highest court in Sparta. The assembly (Ekklēsia) met once a month and was open to all citizens who voted by the simple method of shouting. There was also an executive committee of five ephors (ephoroi) chosen by lot from the citizen body, able only to serve for a maximum of one year and who were ineligible for future office. Two of the ephors also accompanied one of the kings when on campaign. Just how these different political elements interacted is not known for certain but clearly a degree of consensus was necessary for the state apparatus to function. It may also explain Sparta's reputation as being a conservative state slow to make decisions in foreign policy.

Spartan Silver TetradrachmMark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA)

Society

Like all Greek societies Sparta was dominated by male citizens and the most powerful of those came from a select group of families. These were the landed aristocracy, and following reforms credited to Lycurgus in the 6th century BCE (or even earlier), citizens could not indulge in agricultural activities - this was the lot of the helots - but they had to devote themselves to athletic and military training and politics. Helots could not own property and so could not rise to become full-citizens, and this lack of social mobility would come back to haunt Sparta in later centuries. Reduced by constant wars in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, the Spartan hoplites (homoioi) became dangerously small in number (8,000 in 490 BCE to 700 in 371 BCE), so much so, that non-Spartiate soldiers had to be enlisted and their loyalty and interest in Sparta's ambitions was questionable.

The Spartan army showed the rest of Greece the way forward towards a greater military professionalism.

Women in the Sparta city-state had a better lot than in other Greek cities. Spartan women could own property which they often gained through dowries and inheritances. In fact, Spartan women became amongst the richest members of society, as their men were killed in the many wars, and eventually controlled 2/5th of Spartan land. In addition, Spartan women could also move around with reasonable freedom, they could enjoy athletics (done in the nude like men), and even drink wine. All of these freedoms would have been unacceptable in other Greek poleis.

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There were foreigners (xenoi) in Spartan society but these were not as welcome as in other city-states, and those that did live in Sparta were sometimes forcibly expelled by their overly suspicious and at times positively paranoid hosts.

LeonidasMarie-Lan Nguyen (CC BY-SA)

Spartan Army

For all Spartan citizens there was a strong emphasis on military training and frugal living in communal mess halls where simple food such as barley meal, cheese, figs and wine were the norm. From the age of seven, males had a militaristic upbringing known as the agōgē where they were separated into age groups and lived in barracks. These youths pursued rigorous athletic and military training which became even more demanding from the age of 20, when they joined common mess halls (syssition) where they often formed homoerotic relations with older, more experienced citizens. This tough training resulted in a professional hoplite army capable of relatively sophisticated battle manoeuvres and made them feared throughout Greece, a fact perhaps evidenced by Sparta's notable lack of fortifications for most of its history.

A peculiar feature of the Spartans and their military was the great importance given to matters of religion. As Herodotus put it, they 'considered the things of the gods more weighty than the things of men'. Pre- and post-battle sacrifices were a common feature of Greek warfare in general but the Spartan army took things one step further and sacrificed before crossing rivers, for example, and even withheld from mobilising the army if an important religious festival was ongoing. Famous episodes where the Spartans put religion above warfare and even national crisis were at Marathon and Thermopylae during the Greco-Persian Wars. In the former battle, the Spartan soldiers arrived too late to assist the other Greek cities and in the latter mobilised only a token force as they felt compelled to first celebrate the Karneia festival in honour of Apollo.

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The Spartan hoplite army, however, showed the rest of Greece the way forward towards a greater military professionalism and considering the iconic image of fearless and disciplined hoplites with red cloaks and lambda-emblazoned shields, for the Greeks, admiring Romans and even 21st century film-goers, this is Sparta.

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Sparta

taEducationSign InMenuDonateENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRYENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRYSpartaSpartaSparta was one of the most dominant of all the Greek city-states, and is most often remembered for their athletic and militaristic values.Grades5 - 8SubjectsAnthropology, Archaeology, Social Studies, Ancient CivilizationsImagesparta racecourseThis 1899 illustration depicts the racecourse at Sparta. The original illustration was made in black and white, and was colorized at a later date.Photograph by Lanmas / Alamy Stock PhotoArticleVocabularySparta was a city-state located in the southeastern Peloponnese region of ancient Greece. Sparta grew to rival the size of the city-states Athens and Thebes by subjugating its neighboring region of Messenia. Though Sparta absorbed this population, it did not integrate the conquered people into society.Spartan society was separated into social classes, and conquered people were not given political rights or citizenship. Even lower than the conquered population was a group called the helots. Helots were responsible for agricultural duties and other day-to-day tasks that supported the Spartans. Spartan citizens required this support because they focused solely on athletic and military training, and politics. Two kings from two different families ruled Sparta. This ensured that when one king ventured out on a military campaign the other could continue to rule the city. A council of elders advised the kings in addition to serving as judges and hosting public assemblies.Military activity was essential to Sparta. At the age of seven, boys left home to begin training at a military academy called an agoge (a-go-je). At the academy, the boys lived communally with others in their age group. This was meant to prepare them for life in the army. Soldiers were trained as hoplites, or heavily armed foot soldiers. The Spartan army was known for its skill in on-land combat.Sparta fought both foreign and neighboring adversaries. However, in 480 B.C.E., Sparta allied with Athens, to prevent the Persian king Xerxes from invading Greece. Not long after, however, the two cities began fighting each other in the two Peloponnesian Wars (460 to 446 B.C.E. and 431 to 404 B.C.E.) and the Corinthian War (396 to 387 B.C.E.).CreditsMedia CreditsThe audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.DirectorTyson Brown, National Geographic SocietyAuthorNational Geographic SocietyProduction ManagersGina Borgia, National Geographic SocietyJeanna Sullivan, National Geographic SocietyProgram SpecialistsSarah Appleton, National Geographic Society, National Geographic SocietyMargot Willis, National Geographic SocietyotherLast UpdatedOctober 19, 2023User PermissionsFor information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. They will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource.MediaIf a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media.TextText on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service.InteractivesAny interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. You cannot download interactives.Related ResourcesNational Geographic Headquarters 1145 17th Street NW Washington, DC 20036ABOUTNational Geographic SocietyNatGeo.comNews and ImpactContact UsExploreOur ExplorersOur ProgramsEducationNat Geo LiveStorytellers CollectiveTraveling ExhibitionsJoin UsWays to GiveApply for a GrantCareersdonateget updatesConnectNational Geographic Society is a 501 (c)(3) organization. © 1996 - 2024 National Geographic Society. All rights reserved.Privacy Notice|Sustainability Policy|Terms of Service|Code of Eth

斯巴达 - 维基百科，自由的百科全书

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1历史

开关历史子章节

1.1建立城邦

1.2组建同盟

1.3波希战争

1.4争霸希腊

1.5走向衰亡

2特色

开关特色子章节

2.1政治制度

2.1.1二王制

2.1.2执政官

2.1.3元老院与公民会议

2.2公民教育

2.2.1婴儿

2.2.2男孩

2.2.3女孩

2.3社会阶层

2.3.1斯巴达人

2.3.2庇里阿西人

2.3.3希洛人

2.3.4对黑劳士的奴役

2.4经济政策

2.4.1土地国有

2.4.2铸造铁币

2.4.3公食制度

2.5评价

3参见

4注释

5参考文献

开关参考文献子章节

5.1引用

5.2来源

开关目录

斯巴达

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维基百科，自由的百科全书

此条目介绍的是古代希腊城邦。关于现代希腊的同名市镇，请见“斯巴达 (市镇)”。关于其他同名事物，请见“斯巴达 (消歧义)”。

坐标：37°4′55″N 22°25′25″E / 37.08194°N 22.42361°E / 37.08194; 22.42361

拉刻代蒙Λακεδαίμων公元前900年－192年

希腊文的第11个字母“Λ”（兰布达）被斯巴达军队用为城邦的象征

斯巴达的疆域首都斯巴达常用语言多利安希腊语宗教希腊多神教政府二头政治国王 • 1104－1066年欧律斯忒涅斯• 1104－1062年普罗克勒斯• 489－480年列奥尼达一世• 192年拉克尼库斯

立法机构

五督政官

斯巴达元老院

前身

继承

希腊黑暗时代

亚该亚同盟

罗马共和国

本页面有特殊字符，操作系统及浏览器须支持特殊字母与符号才能正确显示，否则可能变成乱码、问号、空格等其它符号。

斯巴达（多利安希腊文：Σπάρτα，拉丁转写：Spártā；阿提卡希腊文：Σπάρτη，Spártē），是古希腊的一个奴隶制城邦，本名为拉刻代蒙（Λακεδαίμων，Lakedaímōn），位于中拉科尼亚平原的南部，埃夫罗塔斯河西岸。斯巴达城为古希腊地区的战略要冲，三面环山，扼守着塔伊耶托斯山脉，该山脉上的隘口是进入拉科尼亚和伯罗奔尼撒半岛的必经之路。

斯巴达以独裁专制、军国主义和严酷的纪律而闻名，实行奴隶主阶级的贵族寡头统治，与当时雅典的民主制度形成鲜明对比，并规定所有男人必须从军，一切制度和生活都带有军事色彩。斯巴达还拥有众多奴隶，称为黑劳士，因此“斯巴达式”也成为“艰苦进行”的代名词。在伯罗奔尼撒战争中，斯巴达及其同盟者战胜雅典军队并称霸整个希腊，但不久后便被新兴的底比斯打败，在北方的马其顿崛起后，斯巴达在希腊失去影响力。

历史[编辑]

建立城邦[编辑]

斯巴达城的遗址

第一次麦西尼亚战争发生于麦西尼亚的麦西尼亚山

现在为世人所熟知的斯巴达指的是特洛伊战争80多年后多利亚人建立起来的斯巴达城邦，荷马史诗《伊利亚特》中迈锡尼的斯巴达王墨涅拉俄斯是更早时期的希腊人，他同后迈锡尼时期之斯巴达的唯一关联只有相同的名字和地域[1]。

约公元前1100年至前950年期间，来自希腊东北方伊庇鲁斯和马其顿的多利亚（或译多里安）人入侵希腊南部的伯罗奔尼撒半岛，攻占了东部地区后，定居于拉塞达埃蒙河谷，以斯巴达[a]为都[3]。讽刺的是，这些占领了原斯巴达地区的多利亚人本是鸠占鹊巢，却仍被称为斯巴达人。新斯巴达人并将被征服地区的原斯巴达人亦即迈锡尼原居民变为奴隶，并继续其侵略脚步，攻占半岛东南部的拉哥尼亚（或译拉科尼亚）[1]。前七、八世纪，当希腊各城邦为了解决人口过剩与农用土地不足的问题，而纷纷向海外殖民时，斯巴达并没有跟进，而是用向外扩张的方式解决，约于公元前736年，斯巴达人（多利亚人）又开始对曾为迈锡尼文化做出贡献的西部邻邦美塞尼亚（或译麦西尼亚）进行长达20年的第一次美塞尼亚战争[4]。美塞尼亚人不甘做野蛮人的奴隶，奋勇反击，发生第二次美塞尼亚战争，战争一度空前激烈，并一度几乎击垮斯巴达人，后来斯巴达人终获胜利[5]。经过两次美塞尼亚战争，斯巴达将多数的美塞尼亚人变为奴隶，与拉哥尼亚的原居民一样，称为黑劳士。抵抗力量中的幸存者被逐出伯罗奔尼撒半岛，一部分人逃往南意大利与西西里岛，建立雷焦卡拉布里亚与墨西拿，另一部分人投奔雅典[5]。两次美塞尼亚战争后，为了防止再有类似的叛变，来古格士为斯巴达变法，从此斯巴达转型为军国主义的城邦[1]。

组建同盟[编辑]

主条目：伯罗奔尼撒同盟

第二次美塞尼亚战争后，斯巴达又陆续进攻伯罗奔尼撒半岛的其他城邦，提吉亚、阿古斯与伯罗奔尼撒半岛诸多城邦，震慑于斯巴达的武力，都甘愿受其领导，因而组成伯罗奔尼撒同盟，斯巴达并成为盟主，当时希腊城邦出现推翻僭主统治的情况时，斯巴达常以维护寡头政治的维护者之姿，时常去干涉其他城邦的内政[6]，前508年，斯巴达曾接受伊萨哥拉斯（英语：Isagoras）的请求，试图让雅典成为斯巴达的附庸，后来这项计划却落空[7]，但是斯巴达仍然不改这种干涉作风，也引起其他城邦的不满，这些城邦反而支持雅典对抗斯巴达，斯巴达便只能留在伯罗奔尼撒半岛称霸[8]。

波希战争[编辑]

绘于前5世纪的陶杯上的希腊重装步兵与波斯战士的战斗

主条目：波希战争

斯巴达人的骁勇善战，可以由波希战争里得见。在温泉关战役，斯巴达国王列奥尼达一世以其本国精兵300人、400名底比斯志愿军和6000名希腊各其它城邦的联军，在温泉关抵挡了数量上远远超过他们的波斯军队，长达三天，使得波斯军队在头两天不得寸进，并且死伤惨重。但在第三天，一个希腊当地的居民背叛希腊阵营，带领波斯军队沿着山区的小径绕到希腊联军的后方，见此列奥尼达解散了希腊联军，留下300名斯巴达精兵一小股志愿军殿后[9]。在经过一番激烈厮杀后，列奥尼达所率领殿后的志愿军全军覆灭，但成功阻止波斯国王薛西斯一世所统率的大军前进，给予希腊联军时间予以准备，结果最后希腊战胜了波斯，斯巴达人应记一功[9]。

争霸希腊[编辑]

伯罗奔尼撒战争形势图

主条目：伯罗奔尼撒战争

波斯战争后，斯巴达为了与雅典争夺霸权，因此统率其主导的伯罗奔尼撒联盟与以雅典为首的提洛同盟进行了伯罗奔尼撒战争[10]。这场战争从前431年一直持续到前404年，其中双方几度停火，斯巴达不惜违反希腊传统与波斯缔结盟约，在波斯帮助之下，斯巴达建造一支足以威胁雅典的海军，最后终于获胜[10]。但双方均打至筋疲力竭，结果斯巴达在称霸希腊不久后便被新兴的底比斯打败[11]，其后再受挫于马其顿将军安提帕特，从此走向衰亡。

走向衰亡[编辑]

在亚历山大大帝死后，斯巴达脱离了马其顿帝国的阴影，但其衰亡已不可逆转。由于斯巴达公民的死亡，来古格士法难以维持，开始大量使用黑劳士补充兵源。虽然克里昂米尼三世在位时，曾尝试进行改革，一度使斯巴达重现生机，但在公元前222年，克里昂米尼三世统率的斯巴达军队在塞拉西亚战役败给了亚该亚同盟和马其顿国王安提柯三世的联军，克里昂米尼三世被逼逃亡，斯巴达从此走向衰亡。最后在公元前192年，斯巴达被亚该亚同盟吞并，而亚该亚同盟不久亦为罗马共和国所灭，斯巴达成为罗马城市，从此不再以独立城邦的姿态出现[12]。而部分来古格士法还残存了相当长的一段时间，斯巴达也因此沦为了罗马富人猎奇的旅游目的地。

特色[编辑]

斯巴达人经常发动战争，拥有的步兵训练严格且扎实，是古代世界上作战能力高强的步兵之一。生产以农业为主，过着简单的生活，与当时的雅典不同，如不太重视知识、文化发展等等。

政治制度[编辑]

斯巴达政治制度

斯巴达之政治制度相传为古时立法者来古格士所定，有两位国王，五位执政官及元老院、公民会议（英语：Apella）等机关[13]。

二王制[编辑]

斯巴达行“二王制”，两个国王分别来自于较高级的亚基亚德家族，与比较低级的欧里庞提家族，但实际上两个国王的权力均甚小，大权皆在五位执政官之手。国王不过为祭司长、裁判长、出征时之元帅、元老院中的议长而已。至于斯巴达之所以必置二王，即系利用其互相倾轧以王制王之故。斯巴达对于其国王防制颇严。国王不得与外国联婚，防其树立外援。又不许二王室互相联婚，防二王的权力合一[14]。

二位国王只有在战时才有权力，其中一个国王担任统帅，另一个国王则负责留守。而平时，重大事务均由“长老会议”决定，而长老会议则由28个人组成。除此以外，有5个执政官会帮助国王处理政务，并由元老院作出决定。虽然实际上元老院握有实权，但所有重要事务在名义上还需要公民大会通过，方为有效[14]。

执政官[编辑]

斯巴达的执政官五人，每年由人民公决，权力远在国王之上，得拥护国法，监督国家一切公权私权，又可召集元老院及公民会议，对于国王有罪，亦得加以审判。但执政官的任期仅一年，且每事须经五人的同意始有效，故其权力虽大，理论上仍有限制；然而由于该职务并无连任限制，故此后来执政官成为斯巴达城邦中最有实权的职务[14]。

元老院与公民会议[编辑]

元老院的议员并同二国王共三十人，元老院议员非六十岁以上免役者不能担任。对于立法、行政、司法之事，概得与闻。每一法案，均须由此提出，非经其表决者，不得提出于公民会议。由全体公民普选而得之公民会议实为元老院的附属机关，虽有表示赞成或反对元老院所议决的法案之自由，可是实际上是不敢反对的[14]。

公民教育[编辑]

斯巴达战士的雕像

斯巴达各种制度中的最值得注意者为他们的公民教育。由于斯巴达以少数多利安民族，统治大多数的亚该亚农奴。为了有效防止农奴造反并能在众邦林立的希腊世界中适应生存，因此订定一套完整的公民教育制度。“国家至上，军事第一”是他们的基本政策。男人为了国家作战；女人为了国家育儿。国王犹如兵团司令，教师就像军训教官；学校等于兵营，家庭宛如一个役男生产所[15]。斯巴达人轻视文化教育。青少年只要求会写命令和便条就可以了。斯巴达人要求他们的子弟语言简明，直截了当，从小养成沉默寡言的习惯，说话就像军事口令一样。因为害怕外邦人移居有碍它的军事生活，斯巴达实施严格排外政策，禁止外邦人无故入境。

斯巴达的国家体系基本上已完全军事化。

婴儿[编辑]

斯巴达犹如一个大军营，其公民的婴儿刚出生时，便要被检验体质，如果不合要求，便会被葡萄酒灌死，抛弃至荒山野岭。合格的会用葡萄酒为其婴儿洗澡，便交还给婴儿的母亲抚养到七岁[16]。

男孩[编辑]

男孩在七岁前是由双亲抚养的，但其父母从小则会训练他们成为独立坚强的战士，甚至有点冷酷无情。七岁后便会编入团队进行残酷严格的军事训练。他们要被训练为绝对服从，身手敏捷，不怕艰苦的军人，所以每年均会被烧得滚烫的皮鞭鞭打，并不许求饶或叫喊[17]。当男孩过了12岁，便会被编入少年队，只能光身赤脚，不论天气冷暖均只许穿一件外套，并只可在军营里作少量进食，逼使他们在外面偷取食物，锻炼他们的身手。若被人发现，则会被处罚，因为这证明他身手不灵活[16]。同时也有训练会将他们丢到荒郊野外，要求他们靠己身之力进行野外求生、与野兽搏斗，考验生存能力。至20岁后，则成为正规军人。30岁时便会成亲，但还是要每天作军训[16]。60岁时便会退役，国家会对他们比较优待，但仍要作为预备军，随时候命[16]。

女孩[编辑]

斯巴达女性相对于其他古希腊城邦的女性而言拥有比较高的社会地位，按当时规定可以继承40%的家族财产。女孩过了七岁仍留在家里，但并不从事刺绣等杂务，而是进行艰苦的体格训练。因为斯巴达人认为只有强壮的母亲，方能孕育出勇悍的战士[18]。因此斯巴达的妇女都十分坚忍，并不怕看到儿子浴血沙场。当儿子要上战场时，她们并不会为其祝福，而是给他一个盾牌，并对其说：“孩子，带着盾牌回来，不然就躺在盾牌上。”即谓：如果你不能凯旋归来，就应战死沙场而还[18]。

《波塞冬之怒》 V. Kosov 137x198 布面油画 2016

斯巴达有一首最有名的古诗，歌颂一位八个儿子全部为国牺牲的母亲。当这位母亲知道八个儿子全部阵亡，她并没有流下眼泪，在凯旋大会表示：

祖国斯巴达呀，我就是为了他们为你牺牲，才生下他们八个，如今我的心愿已经完成了[18]。

社会阶层[编辑]

斯巴达的社会阶层分为斯巴达人、庇里阿西人、希洛人三个阶级，这种阶级是不能改变的种姓制度。

斯巴达人[编辑]

第一阶级为斯巴达人，为征服者多利亚人的子孙，享有完全的公民权者，他们都住在斯巴达城内，尽管人数很少，却掌握国家的军政大权，虽有田而不自耕，其专门之职业为服兵役与任官吏二事[19]。

庇里阿西人[编辑]

第二为庇里阿西人，为多利亚人入侵时，没有抵抗而顺从的居民，从事于工商业而无参政权，虽为自由民，然不得享有完全的公民权利，他们都住在斯巴达城周围，及边境山区和海岸地方；战时需要为斯巴达军队支援[20]。

希洛人[编辑]

第三阶级为黑劳士，意为农奴。他们常隶属于土地而为第一阶级的人服劳奉养而耕作，生活在农村上，没有公民权与基本人权，被认为是国家的财产；战时亦随第一阶级之后以服军役[21]。

对黑劳士的奴役[编辑]

黑劳士的生活极其艰苦，他们在战时要作先锋，但又没有任何权利，斯巴达人可以随时杀死他们[21]。黑劳士（希洛人）是斯巴达人的公有财产，在节日里，斯巴达人经常灌醉黑劳士，并将他们拖至公共场所任意欺凌。黑劳士不论如何，每年均要被鞭笞一次，其目的就是要黑劳士牢记其奴隶身份[17]。甚至每年组织斯巴达少年结队杀戮希洛人（即为克里普提），以此培养斯巴达少年的战斗精神，也削弱希洛人的反抗[17]。亦因如此，黑劳士曾经多次发动起义。有学者认为，斯巴达对外的连年战争使黑劳士的负担重到难以承受，但许多受剥削的黑劳士，后来找到机会摆脱了斯巴达人的剥削和奴役（如第三次美塞尼亚战争中重新获得独立），让原本习惯于依靠剥削黑劳士（美塞尼亚人）为生的斯巴达人因此难以谋生，是斯巴达衰落的原因之一[22]。最后这种制度在亚历山大大帝征服斯巴达后被废除。

经济政策[编辑]

来古格士所推行经济制度，完全为军事需求和维持斯巴达人的统治地位。

土地国有[编辑]

为了避免土地兼并现象的发生，造成社会贫富差距加大，实行“土地国有”政策，将所有土地全部收归政府，受予给斯巴达公民，其再将土地发放被统治的农奴进行耕种，向他们收取粮食，而统治者的斯巴达公民可以专心进行军事训练，对内镇压奴隶的反抗，对外进行侵略战争[23]。

铸造铁币[编辑]

为了平均社会财富，斯巴达发行一种铁币，由于沉重、价值较低，所以携带不便、流通不易，一方面避免商人屯积货物，获取暴利，另一方面，使外国商品，不易打入斯巴达市场，大大降低斯巴达财富外流的可能性[23]。

公食制度[编辑]

凡斯巴达男子不论贫富，皆会食于公共食堂，食品粗疏，除执政官外，尊贵如国王亦须在此会食。食时得畅谈国事，少年子弟因得于此获得政治上的知识[23]。

评价[编辑]

斯巴达采取军国主义的独裁或寡头体制，并掌控整个国家经济，除了为了防止麦西尼亚人的反抗其统治外，地理上的孤立也是原因，斯巴达的东北边与西边都是山脉，不易与其他城邦产生文化交流，造成斯巴达文化的发展停滞不前，也没有思想家或作家诞生，因此在希腊文化中并没留下太多贡献[24]。

参见[编辑]

斯巴达考古博物馆

斯巴达国王列表

古希腊城市列表（英语：List of ancient Greek cities）

注释[编辑]

^ 为可供耕种的平原[2]。

参考文献[编辑]

引用[编辑]

^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 刘增泉. 第三章第三節〈早期的斯巴達〉. 《希臘史—歐洲文明的起源》. 2003: 31页.

^ 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第一節〈斯巴達的社會階級〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 152页.

^ 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第一節〈「希倫子孫」的民族精神〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 145-147页.

^ 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第三節〈第一次全西尼亞戰爭〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 164–166页.

^ 5.0 5.1 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第三節〈第二次全西尼亞戰爭〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 166–168页.

^ 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第四節〈伯羅奔尼撒同盟〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 169页.

^ 冯作民. 第三篇第四章第一節〈斯巴達在雅典建傀儡政權〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 195–196页.

^ 冯作民. 第三篇第四章第二節〈雅典人奮勇抗戰光復故國〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 196–197页.

^ 9.0 9.1 王尚德. 第四章第二節〈血戰溫泉關〉. 《希臘文明》. 2010: 111–114页.

^ 10.0 10.1 王尚德. 第四章第三節〈伯羅奔尼撒戰爭〉. 《希臘文明》. 2010: 116页.

^ 王尚德. 第四章第三節〈留克特拉戰役〉. 《希臘文明》. 2010: 124–126页.

^ 刘增泉. 第三章第三節〈斯巴達寡頭政治的衰弱〉. 《希臘史—歐洲文明的起源》. 2003: 34页.

^ 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第二節〈來喀古斷然變法〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 155-156页.

^ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第二節〈極權主義的政治制度〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 156–157页.

^ 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第二節〈軍國主義的教育法規〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 157页.

^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第二節〈男子教育〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 157–159页.

^ 17.0 17.1 17.2 郭豫斌. 第73回〈全民皆兵的斯巴達〉. 《圖解世界史—古代卷》. 2007: 230–233页.

^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第二節〈女子教育〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 159-160页.

^ 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第一節〈斯巴達〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 152–153页.

^ 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第一節〈邊民〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 153页.

^ 21.0 21.1 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第一節〈農奴〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 153–154页.

^ 徐松岩. 黑劳士制度、土地制度与“平等者公社”的兴衰（下）. 中国世界古代史研究网. 2004. （原始内容存档于2013-10-20）.

^ 23.0 23.1 23.2 冯作民. 第三篇第三章第二節〈侵略主義的經濟政策〉. 《西洋全史》（三）希臘城邦. 1979: 161–162页.

^ 王曾才. 第二章第一節〈斯巴達的政治、社會和經濟〉. 《世界通史》. 2006: 87–91页.

来源[编辑]

非中文资料

斯巴达

W. G. Forest. A History of Sparta, 950-192 B.C.. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1968. （英文）

Ernle Bradford（英语：Ernle Bradford）. The Battle for the West-Thermopylae 480. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981. （英文）

Paul Cartledge（英语：Paul Cartledge）. Spartan Reflections. London: Duckworth, 2001. （英文）

中文资料

《古代城邦史研究》，日知主编，北京人民出版社，1989年

《西洋全史（第3册）：希腊城邦》，冯作民编著，台北，燕京文化，1975年

《希腊史—欧洲文明的起源》，三民书局，2003年，ISBN 978-957-14-3751-4

《世界通史》，三民书局，1993年，ISBN 978-957-14-4602-8

《希腊文明》，华滋出版，2010年，ISBN 978-986-6271-13-7

《图解世界史—古代卷》，好读出版，2007年，ISBN 978-986-178-040-5

查论编古希腊

古希腊大纲（英语：Outline of ancient Greece）

古希腊时间线（英语：Timeline of ancient Greece）

古希腊古希腊地区历史时期

基克拉泽斯文明

米诺斯文明

迈锡尼文明

希腊黑暗时代

古风时期

古典希腊时期

希腊化时代的希腊

希腊的罗马时期

古希腊地区

爱琴海

伊奥利亚

亚历山大

安提阿

卡帕多细亚

克里特

塞浦路斯

多利安六城邦（英语：Doric hexapolis）

以弗所

伊庇鲁斯同盟

达达尼尔海峡

爱奥尼亚

爱奥尼亚海

马其顿王国

大希腊

米利都

伯罗奔尼撒

帕加马

本都

克里米亚

古代殖民地

城邦政治军事城邦

阿尔戈斯

古雅典

拜占庭

哈尔基斯

科林斯 (古希腊)

埃雷特里亚

克基拉岛

拉里萨

迈加洛波利

墨伽拉

罗得岛

萨摩斯岛

斯巴达

锡拉库扎

底比斯 (希腊)

政治

五百人会议

联盟（英语：Koinon）

Proxeny（英语：Proxeny）

将军 (古希腊)

Tagus (title)（英语：Tagus (title)）

僭主

近邻同盟

雅典式民主

阿哥拉

亚略巴古

雅典集会

Graphe paranomon（英语：Graphe paranomon）

民众法庭

陶片放逐制

斯巴达宪法（英语：Spartan Constitution）

公民会议（英语：Apella）

五督政官

元老院

马其顿王国

同盟议事会（英语：Synedrion）

马其顿联盟（英语：Koinon of Macedonians）

军事

希腊参与的战争列表（英语：List of wars involving Greece）

雅典军事（英语：Athenian military）

马其顿安提柯王朝陆军

马其顿阿吉德王朝陆军

投射机

克里特弓箭手（英语：Cretan archers）

希腊化军队（英语：Hellenistic armies）

马兵（英语：Hippeis）

希腊重装步兵

伙友骑兵

马其顿方阵

方阵 (军事)

轻盾兵

步兵伙友

萨里沙长矛

底比斯圣队

斯基里提斯人（英语：Sciritae）

塞琉古军队（英语：Seleucid army）

斯巴达军队

Toxotai（英语：Toxotai）

Xiphos（英语：Xiphos）

绪斯同骑枪

人物古希腊人物列表（英语：List of ancient Greeks）统治者（英语：Lists of rulers of Greece）

阿尔戈斯国王列表（英语：List of kings of Argos）

雅典执政官列表

雅典国王

科马基尼国王列表（英语：List of rulers of Commagene）

继业者

吕底亚国王列表

马其顿国王列表

List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia（英语：List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia）

阿塔罗斯国王列表

本都统治者列表

斯巴达国王列表

叙拉古僭主列表（英语：List of tyrants of Syracuse）

哲人

阿那克萨哥拉

阿那克西曼德

阿那克西美尼

安提西尼

亚里士多德

德谟克利特

锡诺普的第欧根尼

恩培多克勒

伊壁鸠鲁

高尔吉亚

赫拉克利特

希帕提娅

留基伯

巴门尼德

柏拉图

普罗泰戈拉

毕达哥拉斯

苏格拉底

泰勒斯

季蒂昂的芝诺

扎莱乌库斯

作家

埃斯库罗斯

伊索

阿尔卡埃乌斯

阿尔基罗库斯

阿里斯托芬

巴库利德斯

欧里庇得斯

希罗多德

赫西俄德

希波纳克斯

荷马

伊比库斯

琉善

米南德

弥涅墨斯

尼阿西斯

斐洛克利（英语：Philocles）

品达

普鲁塔克

波利比乌斯

莎孚

西莫尼德斯

索福克勒斯

斯特西克鲁斯

泰奥格尼斯

修昔底德

提谟克勒翁

提尔泰奥斯

色诺芬

其他

阿格西莱二世

阿基斯二世

阿尔西比亚德斯

亚历山大大帝

西库昂的阿拉图斯

阿基米德

阿斯帕齐娅

狄摩西尼

伊巴密浓达

欧几里得

喜帕恰斯

希波克拉底

列奥尼达一世

来古格士

吕山德

克罗托那的米罗

小米太亚德

帕萨尼阿斯（英语：Pausanias (general)）

伯里克利

腓力二世 (马其顿)

菲洛皮门

普拉克西特列斯

克劳狄乌斯·托勒密

皮洛士

梭伦

地米斯托克利

群体

古希腊哲学家列表

古希腊剧作家列表（英语：List of ancient Greek playwrights）

古希腊诗人列表（英语：List of Ancient Greek poets）

古希腊独裁者列表（英语：List of ancient Greek tyrants）

按文化

古希腊部落列表（英语：List of ancient Greek tribes）

色雷斯希腊人列表（英语：List of Thracian Greeks）

马其顿国王列表

社会文化社会

农业

希腊化历法（英语：Hellenic calendars）

服饰

钱币

饮食

经济

派地亚

古希腊节日（英语：Athenian festivals）

丧葬

同性恋

古希腊法（英语：Ancient Greek law）

奥林匹克

少年爱

哲学

性交易

宗教

奴隶制

战争

古希腊婚俗（英语：Ancient Greek wedding customs）

葡萄酒

艺术和科学

建筑

复兴式建筑

天文学

文学

数学

医学

音乐

古希腊音乐体系（英语：Musical system of ancient Greece）

陶器

雕塑

科技

戏剧

宗教

丧葬

神话

神话人物表

神庙

十二主神

冥界

圣地

埃莱夫西纳

德尔斐

提洛岛

多多纳

奥林匹斯山

奥林匹亚

建筑

雅典国库（英语：Athenian Treasury）

狮子门

Long Walls（英语：Long Walls）

Philippeion（英语：Philippeion）

狄俄倪索斯剧场

萨摩斯隧道

古希腊神庙

阿法埃娅神庙

阿耳忒弥斯神庙

雅典娜胜利神庙

厄瑞克忒翁神庙

赫淮斯托斯神庙

奥林匹亚赫拉神庙

帕德嫩神庙

萨莫色雷斯岛神庙群（英语：Samothrace temple complex）

奥林匹亚宙斯神庙

语言

原始希腊

迈锡尼

荷马（英语：Homeric Greek）

古希腊方言（英语：Ancient Greek dialects）

伊欧里斯

阿卡狄亚—塞浦路斯

阿提卡

多利安希腊语（英语：Doric Greek）

爱奥尼亚希腊语（英语：Ionic Greek）

Locrian Greek（英语：Locrian Greek）

古马其顿

Pamphylian Greek（英语：Pamphylian Greek）

通用

文字（英语：History of the Greek alphabet）

线形文字A

线形文字B

塞浦路斯音节文字

希腊字母

希腊数字

阿提卡数字（英语：Attic numerals）

古希腊殖民（英语：Greek colonisation）大希腊

莱切

布林迪西

Caulonia (ancient city)（英语：Caulonia (ancient city)）

卡萨博纳

克罗托内

库迈

埃利亚

Heraclea Lucania（英语：Heraclea Lucania）

维博瓦伦蒂亚

奥特朗托

Krimisa（英语：Krimisa）

Laüs（英语：Laüs）

洛克里

Medma（英语：Medma）

Metapontum（英语：Metapontum）

尼亚波利斯

Pandosia (Lucania)（英语：Pandosia (Lucania)）

波塞冬尼亚

Policastro Bussentino（英语：Policastro Bussentino）

雷吉翁

Scylletium（英语：Scylletium）

Siris (Magna Graecia)（英语：Siris (Magna Graecia)）

锡巴里斯

Sybaris on the Traeis（英语：Sybaris on the Traeis）

他林敦

Terina (ancient city)（英语：Terina (ancient city)）

Thurii（英语：Thurii）

西西里岛

阿格里真托

Akrai（英语：Akrai）

Akrillai（英语：Akrillai）

Apollonia (Sicily)（英语：Apollonia (Sicily)）

卡罗尼亚

Casmenae（英语：Casmenae）

卡塔尼亚

杰拉

Helorus（英语：Helorus）

恩纳

Heraclea Minoa（英语：Heraclea Minoa）

希梅拉

Hybla Gereatis（英语：Hybla Gereatis）

Hybla Heraea（英语：Hybla Heraea）

Kamarina, Sicily（英语：Kamarina, Sicily）

伦蒂尼

Megara Hyblaea（英语：Megara Hyblaea）

墨西拿

纳克索斯（英语：Naxos (Sicily)）

塞杰斯塔

塞利农特

叙拉古

陶尔米纳

夏卡 (阿格里真托省)

Tindari（英语：Tindari）

埃奥利群岛

萨利纳岛

帕纳雷阿岛

阿利库迪岛

巴西卢佐岛

利帕里岛

菲利库迪岛

斯通波利岛

武尔卡诺岛

撒丁岛

奥尔比亚

昔兰尼加

贝达

巴尔卡（英语：Barca (ancient city)）

班加西

昔兰尼 (阿波洛尼亚（英语：Apollonia, Cyrenaica）)

托勒密（英语：Ptolemais, Cyrenaica）

伊比利亚半岛

Akra Leuke（英语：Akra Leuke）

比利亚霍约萨

Empúries（英语：Empúries）

德尼亚

阿尔哈拉克

Sant Martí d'Empúries（英语：Sant Martí d'Empúries）

Menace (Greek settlement)（英语：Menace (Greek settlement)）

圣玛丽亚港

圣波拉

罗德

萨洛 (塔拉戈纳省)

萨贡托

黑海北岸

波里斯提尼斯

Charax, Crimea（英语：Charax, Crimea）

克森尼索

狄俄斯库里亚斯

叶夫帕托里亚

阿纳帕

Tmutarakan（英语：Tmutarakan）

Kepoi（英语：Kepoi）

Kimmerikon（英语：Kimmerikon）

Myrmekion（英语：Myrmekion）

Nikonion（英语：Nikonion）

Nymphaion (Crimea)（英语：Nymphaion (Crimea)）

奥里维亚

潘提卡彭

法纳戈里亚（英语：Phanagoria）

皮提乌斯

塔纳伊斯

狄奥多西亚

提拉斯

Tyritake（英语：Tyritake）

黑海南岸

迪奥尼索波利斯

奥德索斯

安基阿卢斯

美森布里亚

阿波洛尼亚

Kıyıköy（英语：Kıyıköy）

本都赫拉克勒亚（英语：Heraclea Pontica）

提乌姆（英语：Tium）

阿玛斯拉

Cytorus（英语：Cytorus）

Abonoteichos（英语：Abonoteichos）

锡诺普

Zaliche（英语：Zaliche）

阿米索斯

云耶

波勒蒙尼翁

泰尔梅

奥尔杜

吉雷松

特里波里斯 (本都)（英语：Tripolis (Pontus)）

特拉布宗

里祖斯

帕扎尔

巴统

法息斯（英语：Phasis (town)）

列表

古希腊城市列表（英语：List of ancient Greek cities）

List of cities in ancient Epirus（英语：List of cities in ancient Epirus）

古希腊人列表（英语：List of ancient Greeks）

古希腊地名表（英语：List of Greek place names）

List of stoae（英语：List of stoae）

古希腊神庙列表

古希腊剧院列表（英语：List of ancient Greek theatres）

分类

导览（英语：Portal:Ancient_Greece）

大纲（英语：Outline of ancient Greece）

规范控制

WorldCat Identities

BNE: XX451220

BNF: cb14260999p (data)

GND: 4056054-5

ISNI: 0000 0001 1260 9989

J9U: 987007565731705171

LCCN: sh85126330

NDL: 00628643

NKC: ge130899

SUDOC: 085676985

VIAF: 316429266

取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=斯巴达&oldid=80260714”

分类：192年终结的国家或政权希腊城邦斯巴达前11世纪建立的国家或政权隐藏分类：维基数据存在坐标数据的页面在infobox country或infobox former country使用symbol caption或类型字段的页面包含BNE标识符的维基百科条目包含BNF标识符的维基百科条目包含GND标识符的维基百科条目包含ISNI标识符的维基百科条目包含J9U标识符的维基百科条目包含LCCN标识符的维基百科条目包含NDL标识符的维基百科条目包含NKC标识符的维基百科条目包含SUDOC标识符的维基百科条目包含VIAF标识符的维基百科条目使用ISBN魔术链接的页面

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History of Sparta - Wikipedia

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(Top)

1Prehistoric period

Toggle Prehistoric period subsection

1.1Stone age in Sparta

1.2Legendary account

1.3Mycenaean period in Sparta

1.4Dorian invasion

1.5Dark age in Sparta

2Proto-historic period

Toggle Proto-historic period subsection

2.1The reforms of Lycurgus

2.2Expansion of Sparta in the Peloponnesus

37th century BC

46th century BC

Toggle 6th century BC subsection

4.1Peloponnesian League

4.2Expeditions outside the Peloponnese

55th century BC

Toggle 5th century BC subsection

5.1Persian Wars

5.1.1Battle of Marathon

5.1.2Battle of Thermopylae

5.1.3Battle of Plataea

5.1.4Battle of Mycale

5.2464 BC Sparta earthquake

5.3Beginning of animosity with Athens

5.4Peloponnesian Wars

5.4.1First Peloponnesian War

5.4.2Second Peloponnesian War

5.4.2.1Archidamian war

5.4.2.2Syracusan expedition

5.4.2.3Intervention of the Persians

5.4.2.4The terms of surrender

5.5The affair of the thirty

64th century BC

Toggle 4th century BC subsection

6.1Spartan supremacy

6.1.1Failed intervention in the Persian Empire

6.1.2The peace of Antalcidas

6.1.3A new civil war

6.1.4The peace of Callias

6.1.5Decline of the population

6.2Facing the Theban hegemony

6.3Facing Macedon

73rd century BC

8Roman Sparta

9Post-classical periods

Toggle Post-classical periods subsection

9.1Sparta during the Migration Period

9.2Sparta of the Late Middle Ages

9.3Modern Sparta

10See also

11Notes

12References

13Bibliography

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History of Sparta

13 languages

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Part of a series on the

History of Greece

Neolithic Greece

Pelasgians

Greek Bronze Age

Helladic

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Minoan

Mycenaean Greece 1750 BC–1050 BC

Ancient Greece

Greek Dark Ages 1050 BC–750 BC

Archaic Greece 800 BC–480 BC

Classical Greece 500 BC–323BC

Hellenistic Greece 323 BC–31 BC

Roman Greece 146 BC–330

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Ancient Peloponnese states (interactive version)

Ruins of Sparta from the right bank of the Eurotas. Sparti is in the background and Taygetus behind that.

Same view but rotated more to the northern side of the ruins.

The history of Sparta describes the history of the ancient Doric Greek city-state known as Sparta from its beginning in the legendary period to its incorporation into the Achaean League under the late Roman Republic, as Allied State, in 146 BC, a period of roughly 1000 years. Since the Dorians were not the first to settle the valley of the Eurotas River in the Peloponnesus of Greece, the preceding Mycenaean and Stone Age periods are described as well. Sparta went on to become a district of modern Greece. Brief mention is made of events in the post-classical periods.

Dorian Sparta rose to dominance in the 6th century BC. At the time of the Persian Wars, it was the recognized leader by assent of the Greek city-states. It subsequently lost that assent through suspicion that the Athenians were plotting to break up the Spartan state after an earthquake destroyed Sparta in 464 BC. When Sparta defeated Athens in the Peloponnesian War, it secured an unrivaled hegemony over southern Greece.[1] Sparta's supremacy was broken following the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC.[1] It was never able to regain its military superiority[2] and was finally absorbed by the Achaean League in the 2nd century BC.

Prehistoric period[edit]

Ancient Greek civilization - Sparta, Athens, City-States | Britannica

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